Fire and Steel: An Elizabethan Political Pamphlet

 Greetings,

Today, I published a recreation of an Elizabethan political pamphlet entitled "Fire and Steel: Or; Of Devices Using That Villainous Saltpetre and the Degradation of the Art of Defence". It is available for your download by clicking on the title. This was written for my amusement and to practice my writing of the Elizabethan language, using the spelling and grammar of that period. It was also an exercise in writing to a particular format, that of the political pamphlet.

Unlike our modern political pamphlets which are usually a single piece of paper, sometimes double-sided, the Elizabethan political pamphlet was an essay of some length, published in quarto size, with a full argument described within its pages. This allowed the writer of the pamphlet the full range to discuss their argument and allow their point of view to be made known. There was quite a period in which this form of communication was quite popular and you can find more information from the Wikipedia page, here.

For many people in our modern age these pamphlets would qualify as an essay, or even a small book, but in this age the printed word was the prime source of communication. There was not social media where a person's opinion about subjects was immediately broadcast to the world in a split-second. The pages had to be printed by hand, and the spread around, often by the individual. Most of these were addressed to someone important to gain some authority behind their argument, and also gain some attention.

In my case I used the persona names of individuals in the medieval and Renaissance group that I am a member of, the SCA. I used the subject of firearms on the field of combat, as it is a subject which would have been of concern in the Elizabethan period, and is somewhat of a subject of concern in the SCA, at least to some. I personally think they are just a part of the game that we play like many other things, but they were a suitable subject. It was a useful project and it allowed me to exercise my language abilities which was nice.

Cheers,

Henry.

Education: Elizabethan Education

Greetings,

There will be a few articles following about education. These will be focused on medieval, Renaissance and Elizabethan education. It is necessary to know what these individuals were taught to better understand what they understood and the methods by which they came about knowledge. This is important for medieval and Renaissance treatises as I have discussed in my fencing blog (https://afencersramblings.blogspot.com/2020/06/old-learning-for-old-treatises.html), but is also essential for a greater understanding and appreciation of all texts of the period.

Cheers,

Henry.

Elizabethan Education

“The main form of school was the Petty School. This provided education from the age of 5. Education in Petty and Grammar Schools was very formal. Lessons tended to concentrate on learning the reading and writing of Latin, the Bible and Histories. At 14 children could progress to University. Here they could specialise in a wider range of subjects.”[1]

          When education is discussed about an era, it is necessary to note whether this is formal education or not. What has been described above is formal education, primarily for boys. Access to education was not as it is now; the terms and ideas were quite different. “Public education refers to going out to school, as opposed to being tutored at home. It does not mean they are paid for out of public funds.”[2] This was a class- and gender-divided system and these divisions will be discussed as they have an impact on the purpose of the education.

Class

“Education in Elizabethan England was provided for the children of the wealthy. Literacy rates increased during the Elizabethan era. Schooling began in the home and was continued through Petty Schools, Grammar Schools and Universities.”[3]

          Education was paid for by the parents or some benefactor who wanted to see the child educated. Children of Upper and Middle Class families would certainly be educated definitely in Petty Schools, and also sometimes in Grammar Schools. Only the wealthy could afford to be sent to university. The nobility were different again.

“Elizabethan Education was generally for boys of the Upper and Middle Classes. However, Upper Class girls, often members of the Nobility were also given and education.”[4]

          The members of the nobility were certainly educated, in this case both boys and girls were educated, but they did not attend public schools as other classes did, “noble children get their education at home, from private tutors.”[5] These tutors would serve for the noble children’s education all the way up through Grammar School equivalents, so that they were prepared to go to university, at least the boys did. Here, even in noble families there was a gender division; in general, females were not educated outside the home.

Gender

There was certainly a gender gap. The female’s role was seen to be in house-duties, so there was no reason for them to be educated outside the house. “In general, only boys go to school. A girl's education is accomplished at home, although it usually includes reading and arithmetic.”[6] Some noble families extended their female’s education. Female queens were a notable exception to this rule. Some girls did attend Petty School, but, “Girls did not attend Grammar Schools and were not allowed to go to University.”[7] It was seen as unnecessary. In the queens’ case private tutors were, once again, employed. The gender and class gaps were there for a purpose.

Purpose

“Education for all children in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries depended on the financial standing and social class of the family. The main purpose of education was to teach children appropriate behaviour for their social class and to make them useful members of society.”[8]

          Here, education has not changed throughout history. Its purpose has always been to produce citizens which were useful to the state in which they were educated. There was little point in educating an individual above their station because they would never need the knowledge and so it was considered a waste of money, it may also lead them to think above their station. The educational process started at home. “The basic principles of childhood and education would be started in the home.”[9] Here, conversational English was taught along with essential socialisation. The more rigid education started with the Petty School.

Petty School

“The most elementary level of schooling is called petty school. You learn to read and write in English and do sums, but the main idea is to get you into grammar school.”[10]

          Most of the classes who were educated, gained education in Petty Schools and these schools became more popular and were encouraged by the Tudors during their years. For some, graduating Petty School would be the end, for others, this was the beginning of their formal training, a preparation for what was to come in Grammar School.

“The most elementary level of education was conducted for boys aged between 5 and 7 at what was called a ' Petty School '. These lessons and general education were conducted not in a school but in the house of the teacher. The word ' petty ' probably derives from the French word ' petit ' meaning little or small.”[11]

          The modern reader could assume that these Petty Schools were more like our modern pre-schools but they are actually more like our primary schools. Here, the student would gain their general education. The subjects were not particularly broad, partly due to the focus of the education and partly due to the teachers.

“These Petty schools were usually run, for a small fee, by a local, well-educated housewife, and were therefore also referred to as ' Dame Schools '. At the ' Petty School ' or ' Dame School ' the boy's education would consist of being taught to read and write English, learn the catechism and also learn lessons in behaviour.”[12]

          These teachers were not qualified in any sense of the word, but they were educated enough to teach English, catechism, and lessons in behaviour. These schools were focused on the essentials. They were supported by the Tudors because they enabled more people to read the new Bible which was published in English. The teacher’s methods were relatively effective and have been left for us to examine.

“Elementary school teachers were largely untrained and, as historian David Cressy notes, many “were little more than child-minders.” Some, however, took a more professional approach and recorded their techniques for posterity. Their teaching methods consisted mainly of repetitive oral drills, with children encouraged to associate sounds with shapes and figures.”[13]

          There was a lot of repetition of letters and words to ensure that the student remembered them. To ensure that the student was getting the right sort of education, there was a religious and moral aspect which was always introduced into the study of the language.

“In these schools the curriculum usually covered the basics of the English language. They also taught the principles of the church, something called Catechism. This is similar to Bible studies. Petty / Dame schools also taught children about standards of expected behaviour. This was important because of the changes made by the Religious Settlement.”[14]

          The religious changes which had happened under Henry VIII and then had been reinforced under Edward VI and Elizabeth I were such that the Bible was written in English a new English Church had been formed and the students at school had to learn all of the necessary elements of church studies to have the correct behaviour. Further, there was a moral aspect which was enforced in these teachings. They used a writing aid to copy their letters from when practicing which reinforced the moral and religious aspects taught.

“Here they learned their ABCs using a hornbook, a paddle-shaped piece of English oak with a paper or parchment alphabet protected by transparent horn laminate. And because one of the purposes of Elizabethan education was to create a new generation of good Anglicans, the hornbook also contained the Lord’s Prayer, the Creed, and sometimes the Ten Commandments.”[15]

          The education was sanctioned in purpose by the state to produce the kind of citizens that they wanted. Education allowed more of the population to read the Bible in English and thus become better citizens through the Anglican Church. The Tudors focused on having as many of their English citizens able to read and write in English to ensure the prosperity of their nation. Writing was something which was not taught until later in the school program.

“Writing was taught later in petty school, mainly as a means of reinforcing reading skills. Penmanship was a complicated process that required mastery of papers, rulers, inks, penknives, and goosefeathers, all alien to students who did not grow up with such materials in their homes. It was also a messy business—and not an easy proposition for clumsy little hands. Children would begin by imitating written letters, syllables, and words they had learned orally until they could reproduce them without following a copy. Oddly (to us, at least), one thing Ben and his peers would not have been encouraged to write was their names. In fact, according to Cressy, “none of the educators of pre-industrial England recommended children to learn to write their own names… since [personal names] did not conform to the rules of spelling that the teachers were trying to instill.” So when Renaissance people were unable to produce a signature, it did not necessarily mean that they were illiterate.”[16]

          Shakespeare has been presented as having several different signatures with several different spellings of his name. He has to be the most well-known poet and play-wright of the Elizabethan era and credited with having a significant impact upon the English language. Clearly, he was not illiterate. The focus was on words other than individual names. Names did not conform to rules of spelling, as indicated. Shakespeare’s noted friend Ben Jonson attended Grammar School, due to a patron’s gift. Many others were not so fortunate.

Grammar School

“Somewhere between the ages of eight and eleven, boys graduated to grammar school. Very few Elizabethan girls progressed beyond petty school, although those in the middle and upper classes sometimes continued their education at home. In Jonson’s case, he made the leap at only seven, thanks to a benefactor who secured him a spot at Westminster School. ... Jonson’s patron remains unknown, it is recorded that his first teacher was William Camden, who was not only one of the leading schoolmasters of his day but also an eminent linguist, historian, and author.”[17]

          Grammar School was not for everyone. For some, it was not affordable, for others it was not necessary, due to their future occupation. The gifted students would progress to Grammar School along with those of whom it was required for them to assume their roles in society. While this school could be compared to the modern secondary school, there were some differences noted, aside from attendance and age.

“The Children of Noble birth were invariably taught by tutors at home but, from the age of 7 to 14, children of a lower standing went to Grammar Schools - the most common institute for Elizabethan education during the Elizabethan period. Many schools were financed by the local Guild.”[18]

          Guilds would finance schools because they would benefit from the graduands of those schools. Where the Guild assisted a citizen, they could pay the Guild back in favourable mention and other benefits. This was especially the case for the emerging Middle Class which was becoming more and more economically-powerful. Further, their members could be educated at these schools, thus benefiting the Guild in a direct sense. These schools did not have the same comforts of modern schools.

“Elizabethan classrooms were big drafty spaces, often converted from chapels; they were noisy and dirty, freezing in winter, and dark at both ends of the school day. Pupils furnished not only their own writing paper, notebooks, quills, and sharpening knives, but were also expected to contribute fuel to stave off the chill and candles to see their way through long hours of study.”[19]

          Such a situation, it could be assumed, would not be beneficial for the students and their studies might suffer. The same conditions also produced students who were willing to endure the conditions to achieve their end. Such conditions for study make modern ones seem rather comfortable in comparison. The curriculum was heavily based around Latin.

“Teaching techniques relied heavily on memorization and recitation. Students were expected to become proficient in Latin, as it was the language of the educated throughout Europe. The curriculum was conservative, because most of the teachers had received their education in the old system, which concentrated on rhetoric.”[20]

          The medieval systems of teaching which had preceded it still held their sway hence the influence of rhetoric being present and also that Latin was still the language of the educated throughout Europe. The curriculum was focused around the learning of Latin and its correct grammar. Writing was based on reading of Latin passages. “A grammar school pupil’s first order of business was learning Latin; his second was avoiding the birch.”[21] Corporal punishment was prevalent in these schools and was expected for any infraction.

“Latin is also the language of international affairs, and men of affairs are expected to be able to communicate in it. Or employ someone who does. Anyone who wants to make his way in the world must have at least a working knowledge of Latin.”[22]

          Latin was the common language amongst the European nations so it was the language of international affairs, and also commerce. This is one of the reasons that it was emphasised in these schools. The students in these schools were expected to be the leaders and it was necessary to learn Latin to do this. “A textbook, ‘Lily’s Latin Grammar’ had been authorised for use in Grammar Schools during the reign of Henry VIII.”[23] This same textbook followed through and was used in the Elizabethan period for the same purpose.

Other Latin texts were used as secondary sources. “Plautus, Terence, and Seneca as classical sources. Any history, literature, or drama is mainly a vehicle for illustrating the grammar.”[24] There were other subjects learnt at Grammar School, but these subjects were learnt around the core of Latin and used as a method of learning Latin. Latin is the gate-key language to further learning and learning was based in the humanities.

“The function of the grammar school is to prepare you for university, where courses are conducted in Latin, even after the Reformation. Music, modern languages, and science are irrelevant.”[25]

          The Grammar School is concerned with the interactions with people, but based upon ancient texts, so history, literature and drama are substantially more important as they explain the world in context with other people and how they should act. There is a subtle sense of social education within the teaching. The early part of teaching was performed by older pupils known as “Ushers” to the younger ones.[26] In this early stage, the student would find their foundations in Latin and learn all of the important aspects of reading and writing in this language.

“Between the ages of 7 and 10 boys would have spent their early childhood being taught by Ushers, a junior master or senior pupil at the Grammar School. The boys first learnt the rudiments of Latin with the assistance of the Tudor text-book known as Lily's Latin Grammar - using the horn-book and the alphabet as a tool and the basis of Elizabethan education. This short introduction to grammar and education, compiled by William Lily, had been authorised by Henry VIII as the sole Latin grammar textbook to be used in education and schools. In 1558 a child's speller was written in England as spelling consistency gradually emerges. This period of Elizabethan education would have followed a set routine”[27]

          In the teaching by the “Ushers” would seem like the actual teachers were moving some of their responsibilities to others. If it is examined from another perspective, the “Ushers”, in teaching of the younger students reaffirm their knowledge of the subjects by having to teach them to the younger students. Through teaching, they can find out any elements in their knowledge which needed work. The actual teachers were known as “Masters”.

“Following this [“Ushers”] teaching moved to ‘Masters’ who were what we would call teachers. Lessons continued to look at different elements of the Latin and English curriculum. Religious Education was also important, especially so considering the Religious Settlement and changes to church practises that followed. Mathematics was taught, mainly arithmetic. Schooling continued to teach the need to respect ones superiors and the church.”[28]

          The “Masters” were what would now be considered actual qualified teachers. The “Ushers” were not, they were merely senior students who took the opportunity to practice their knowledge on the younger students. “Unlike petty school teachers, grammar masters were expected to have gone to university and all were required to pass the Queen’s muster.”[29] The “Masters” were qualified teachers and so would take the students through the senior years of their instruction. This part of the curriculum had a particular focus, being to ensure that the knowledge of Latin was solid and so was their moral knowledge. After this, the student should be ready to face the world, either to assume an occupation, or move to university.

“Between the ages of 10 and 14 boys leave the Ushers to be taught by the Masters in the following lessons.

·       Latin to English translations

·       Literature including the works of the great classical authors and dramatists, such as Ovid, Plautus, Horace, Virgil, Cicero and Seneca

·       Occasionally the study of Greek

·       Religious education continued

·       Arithmetic”[30]

The lessons that the “Masters” taught were thought essential for the student to either progress toward university or to succeed in their position in society. The literature in its reading instilled certain values in the student while reinforcing their knowledge of Latin. Such literature gave the student problems to consider and moral questions to examine. These were presented alongside religious education which was also considered essential for the proper functioning citizen.

School Day and Discipline

“Elizabethan Life at school was quite strict. During summer the school day started at six o'clock in the morning and finished at five o'clock in the evening. There was a two hour break at midday. Because of the dark nights the hours changed during the winter and school started at seven and finished earlier at four o'clock. The school week consisted of a five full days and a half-day on Thursday which continued for between 40 to 44 weeks of the year. This meant that the school boys spent at least 2,000 hours in school – more than double the current school hours.”[31]

          In comparison to their Elizabethan counter-parts the school-boy of the modern era has little to complain about in regard to the school hours. Nor can there be any complaint about the amount of hours worked during that period. Five and a half days in this account makes the typical modern Western school week look pale in comparison. Further the actual hours themselves starting at such early hours and ending at such late ones is of note. The day itself was detailed.

“The school day begins at 7:00am in winter or 6:00am in summer. After prayers, they work till about 9:00 when they are permitted breakfast, then they work till 11:00. Dinner is from 11:00 to 1:00. The school day ends at 5:00 or 5:30pm.”[32]

          When the above discusses “dinner” it is talking about what some might call “lunch”. Considering there is a break taken into account for “breakfast” in the early part of the day defines the day as starting quite early, thus before breakfast was actually had. Then there is the long stretch until the end. These are rather large blocks of work and the prime subject of concern was Latin.

“students were drilled in Latin grammar—memorizing, reciting, translating from English to Latin and back again, and copying classical authors. ... Facility in Latin was considered a requisite skill for educated Elizabethans and, in the upper forms, was the only language spoken in the classroom.”[33]

          Other subjects were primarily learnt as a consequence of learning Latin, because the primary texts that were used were written in Latin. The same texts these days are now translated for our convenience into English, making them easier to read. Latin has lost its place as the international language of discourse and commerce, but in the Elizabethan and earlier periods, it was essential. The Grammar School was focused on teaching Latin.

“Discipline was strict, and often involved beatings. In the lower forms boys studied Latin grammar and vocabulary; in the upper forms, they concentrated on the poetry and prose of writers such as Ovid, Martial, Catullus, and even the contemporary Latin of such writers as Sir Thomas More.”[34]

          Discipline was considered to be an essential part of the learning process. The student would learn their correct method and how to act as a member of society through strict discipline. This discipline was corporal in nature, “students must have their education beaten into them, like their manners and deportment. Parents tend to support this theory.”[35] Corporal punishment existed not only in the school setting but also at home, so this was a continuation of this discipline, such discipline was used to instil hardiness into the student. Punishments were frequent and for the simplest of infractions. “Punishments for lateness, speaking English or not concentrating were common. These punishments included use of the cane.”[36] These punishments were designed to instil the right things into the student, thus punishing them for wrong-doings, swiftly and often with the use of the cane. Such beatings would have been unheard of in the modern system, but considered essential in the Elizabethan.

“The school boys were expected to converse in Latin at all times in order to improve their spoken fluency in the language and any boy caught speaking English at school was punished. The punishments were fierce and fifty strokes of the cane was not an uncommon occurrence.”[37]

After Grammar School

          Once the student had survived the long hours and beatings of Grammar School, there was the possible prospect of university, “At 14 University was available to those boys who could fund such study.”[38] Much like some privately-funded university systems in the modern world, the student or some patron had to fund the student’s entrance and process through university, and most simply could not afford it, or did not see the need for it.

“The future after grammar school for most boys was apprenticeship: they were bound to a master as to a father; and the master, in turn, was responsible for the boy's clothing, food, shelter and training. After seven years of apprenticeship, the boy could become a journeyman and work for wages. It was possible--but rare--for boys of poorer families to attend university through a scholarship or financing from a wealthy patron.”[39]

          A student who went to Grammar School, would likely leave Grammar School educated and start apprenticeship under the tutelage of another of the future occupation, there was little social flow upward. For those whose occupation required the knowledge which was taught at university, they were sent to university, usually paid for by their parents or by some patron who saw potential in the individual, needless to say those of the lower classes rarely went to university. It is most interesting to look at Ben Jonson’s story as an example situation.

“Jonson left Westminster [Grammar School] when he was about sixteen but, without a scholarship, was unable to go on to university—a circumstance that rankled for the rest of his days. Education was one way to lay claim to being a gentleman (being well-born was the other). So unlike Christopher Marlowe, who attended Cambridge University on scholarship, Jonson was unable to pursue that route to upward mobility. He nonetheless built on the strong roots of his early schooling, continuing to educate himself throughout his life, and becoming one of England’s greatest dramatists, a highly respected man of letters, and eventually the recipient of honorary degrees from both Oxford and Cambridge.”[40]

          Ben Jonson’s situation demonstrates how a university education, as gained by Christopher Marlowe gained an individual social status. Jonson, on the other hand, was not able to go to university due to lack of a scholarship or patron, and thus studied independently gaining his honorary degrees, and gaining respect in the process. Education if it was afforded was one way that an individual could break through to another social class and improve an individual’s situation. While education reinforced some social values it offered the opportunity to break free, thus aspiring to become something more as the humanists of the age would have wanted.

---

[1] Moorhouse, D. (2019) “Education and Leisure” in SchoolsHistory.org.uk, https://schoolshistory.org.uk/topics/british-history/elizabethan-era/education-and-leisure/, [accessed 13/2/2020]

[2] Ros, M. (2008) “What Every Schoolboy Knows” in Life in Elizabethan England, www.elizabethan.org/compendium/54.html, [accessed 13/2/2020]

[3] Moorhouse (2019)

[4] Elizabethan-era.org (2017) “Elizabethan Education” in Elizabethan Era, www.elizabethan-era.org.uk/elizabethan-education.htm, [accessed 13/2/2020]

[5] Ros (2008)

[6] ibid.

[7] Moorhouse (2019)

[8] Internet Shakespeare Editions (2011) “The education of boys” in Life and Times, https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/SLT/ideas/education/boys.html#alternative, [accessed 13/2/2020]

[9] Elizabethan-era.org (2017)

[10] Ros (2008)

[11] Elizabethan-era.org (2017)

[12] ibid.

[13] Lyon, K. (2019) “Elizabethan education and Ben Jonson’s school days” in Shakespeare & Beyond, https://shakespeareandbeyond.folger.edu/2019/09/03/ben-jonson-school-elizabethan-education/ [accessed 13/2/2020], Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington, USA

[14] Moorhouse (2019)

[15] Lyon (2019)

[16] Ibid.

[17] ibid.

[18] Elizabethan-era.org (2017)

[19] Lyon (2019)

[20] Internet Shakespeare Editions (2011)

[21] Lyon (2019)

[22] Ros (2008)

[23] Moorhouse (2019)

[24] Ros (2008)

[25] ibid.

[26] Moorhouse (2019)

[27] Elizabethan-era.org (2017)

[28] Moorhouse (2019)

[29] Lyon (2019)

[30] Elizabethan-era.org (2017)

[31] ibid.

[32] Ros (2008)

[33] Lyon (2019)

[34] Internet Shakespeare Editions (2011)

[35] Ros (2008)

[36] Moorhouse (2019)

[37] Elizabethan-era.org (2017)

[38] Moorhouse (2019)

[39] Internet Shakespeare Editions (2011)

[40] Lyon (2019)

Bibliography

Elizabethan-era.org (2017) “Elizabethan Education” in Elizabethan Era, www.elizabethan-era.org.uk/elizabethan-education.htm, [accessed 13/2/2020]

Internet Shakespeare Editions (2011) “The education of boys” in Life and Times, https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/Library/SLT/ideas/education/boys.html#alternative, [accessed 13/2/2020]

Lyon, K. (2019) “Elizabethan education and Ben Jonson’s school days” in Shakespeare & Beyond, https://shakespeareandbeyond.folger.edu/2019/09/03/ben-jonson-school-elizabethan-education/ [accessed 13/2/2020], Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington, USA

Moorhouse, D. (2019) “Education and Leisure” in SchoolsHistory.org.uk, https://schoolshistory.org.uk/topics/british-history/elizabethan-era/education-and-leisure/, [accessed 13/2/2020]

Ros, M. (2008) “What Every Schoolboy Knows” in Life in Elizabethan England, www.elizabethan.org/compendium/54.html, [accessed 13/2/2020]

Education: Renaissance

Greetings,

There will be a few articles following about education. These will be focused on medieval, Renaissance and Elizabethan education. It is necessary to know what these individuals were taught to better understand what they understood and the methods by which they came about knowledge. This is important for medieval and Renaissance treatises as I have discussed in my fencing blog (https://afencersramblings.blogspot.com/2020/06/old-learning-for-old-treatises.html), but is also essential for a greater understanding and appreciation of all texts of the period.

Cheers,

Henry.

Renaissance Education

          The education systems of the Renaissance form a backdrop to Elizabethan education, as they were in the same era and had a similar humanist foundation which was established based on the liberal arts of the medieval period. Some of what was used during the medieval period was discarded for this different approach, but not all of it. This is important, as there were elements of the same system which formed building blocks upon which Renaissance education systems were built. Most sources focus on the change between the two, the so-called revolution.

“The Renaissance created an educational revolution by adopting a classical curriculum for its Latin schools. This happened in Italy in the fifteenth century and in the rest of Europe in the sixteenth century. Renaissance Latin schoolmasters discarded the medieval curriculum, with a handful of exceptions at the primary school level, in favor of the works of Virgil, Cicero, Terence, Julius Caesar (c. 100 –44 B.C.E.), and other ancient authors. Most were Latin; Greek authors were introduced as teachers of Greek became available. These ancient authors taught grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and moral philosophy, which together comprised the studia humanitatis (humanistic studies) based on the standard ancient authors in Latin and, to some extent, in Greek. The classical humanistic curriculum remained the core of Latin education for the elite of Europe well into the twentieth century.”[1]

The effect of the change from the liberal arts of the medieval period to the humanist study of the Renaissance still affects the approach to education in the current era. The problem with the statement above is that there was already a classical curriculum being used in the form of the liberal arts; the humanists simply changed the approach. The humanist studies are still present in primary school education as well as in secondary school education. A person can even go to a modern university to study humanities, though with the impact of the so-called “hard” sciences the humanities departments of universities are taking the brunt of budget cuts.

Refocusing on the Renaissance period the trend which is found in the budgetary concerns of universities began in the Renaissance with their trend away from other aspects which could not be explained by scientific approaches. The result of this was that there was a trend away from the previous approach and focus from religious aspects to more scientific approaches, though there will be noted differences in the Elizabethan education.

“Scholars became more interested in the humanist features—that is, the secular or worldly rather than the religious aspects—of the Greek and Latin classics. Humanist educators found their models of literary style in the classics.”[2]

          The Renaissance educators found their style in the same classics they would end up studying. From these sources the educators found models from which they built their educational systems. These educators were concerned about how the student could improve themselves, understanding the universe was a consequence of this improvement. Social change drove much of this change.

“The religious Reformation of the 16th century marked a decline in the authority of the Catholic Church and contributed to the emergence of the middle classes in Europe.”[3]

          Students wanted to know about the world around them and how they could excel in it. Preparing for the next life, as was taught in the church schools was of less interest. The emergence of the middle class demonstrated that financial gain and presence was also power, so noble families wanted their children educated in this form of power as well. Education was stimulated by the church, however in an effort to ensure its power, teaching in the vernacular (native) language so that they could read the Bible in the same; this was especially significant in England. Here, liturgical and catechism studies were still important.

Vernacular Schools

“In their ardent determination to instruct followers to read the Bible in their native language, reformers extended literacy to the masses. They established vernacular primary schools that offered a basic curriculum of reading, writing, arithmetic, and religion for children in their own language. Vernacular schools in England, for example, used English to teach their pupils.”[4]

          Previously schools taught in Latin rather than the native language, in this case English, teaching of the vernacular, or native language, was thought to be something which was taken care of at home by nannies and other house employees in the course of their duties. While such vernacular schools did exist, the primary language of the learned was Latin, so this was the language that was taught at upper-class schools and universities.

“While the vernacular schools educated both boys and girls at the primary level, upper-class boys attended preparatory and secondary schools that continued to emphasize Latin and Greek. The gymnasium in Germany, the Latin grammar school in England, and the lycee in France were preparatory schools that taught young men the classical languages of Latin and Greek required to enter universities.”[5]

          Such a difference in the language taught at the schools is noteworthy. It is likely that the language taught at the school, and the language which the school was taught in, was what set the school as one of the upper- or middle- and lower-class schools. Lower-class students went to school so that they could read the Bible, as indicated previously. The influence of the ancients was felt especially in the primary upper-class schools and beyond, and these were studied for a reason.

Ancient Influence

“Renaissance humanists studied the literature of ancient Greece and Rome, believing that these classical works represented the height of human knowledge and were important models for a new age.”[6]

          The humanists of the Renaissance examined the literature of the ancients and formulated that they were the best that humanity had to offer, and that they were the models that people should follow. It has already been noted that the same humanists modelled the subjects for study from the same greats of ancient literature. The knowledge of these promised great things.

“It was believed that with the knowledge of greats—that is the ancient writers—you could be a proconsul of an empire, a captain of industry, or a general, or an admiral. You could do anything as long as you had the knowledge of classical antiquity and a good, correct Latin style behind you.”[7]

          From the same greats, it was said, that an individual could learn how to be like the individuals that the student was learning from. Not only could a person learn the words of Cicero, but a student, with diligence, could learn to write the same words and have the same skills of oration as him as well. The Renaissance opened the potential of the individual to do great things. Italy was the first to adopt this new curriculum, based on ancient educators, the rest of Europe followed not long after.

“Humanist pedagogues sought guidance on ancient education from the Institutio oratoria (Institutes of oratory) of the Roman teacher of rhetoric Quintilian (c. 35–100 C.E.). Italy adopted the classical Latin curriculum in the fifteenth century, and the rest of Europe followed in the sixteenth.”[8]

          It has been indicated that an individual had the potential to do great things through the reading of the classical authors. This is the reason that humanist educators of the Renaissance sought them for advice and taught them to their students, but there must also be a reason for giving the student the education in the first place, a purpose for education.

Purpose

“Education during the Italian Renaissance was carefully programmed to create students who were well-balanced and who embodied the values of their society.”[9]

          In society there is always a purpose to education and a reason that certain things are taught to the students and other things are not. The purpose highlighted above is very similar to the purpose of education in our current era and in eras previous: to create citizens who embodied the values of their society. The Renaissance educator wanted to teach the student to be more than a mindless drone.

“The Renaissance humanistic curriculum promised more than learning to read and write like the ancients. Italian and northern European humanists argued in a series of pedagogical treatises that reading the classics would teach boys, and a few girls, wisdom as well as eloquence. The classics would inspire readers to live honorably and well. If well instructed, they would do what was morally right and would be loyal to family, city, and country. The goal was humanitas, the knowledge of how to live as cultivated, educated members of society.”[10]

          There was more to the education than teaching the students the “nuts and bolts” of reading and writing. There was the consideration of deeper things about which they were reading so they would learn something of wisdom and eloquence. Considerations of morality were also presented so that the student would question things and ask the right questions. The subjects taught in the Renaissance curriculum were somewhat broader than the seven liberal arts of the medieval period, but show their influence.

Subjects

“Humanist educators designed teaching methods to prepare well-rounded, liberally educated persons. Dutch humanist Desiderius Erasmus was particularly influential. Erasmus believed that understanding and conversing about the meaning of literature was more important than memorizing it, ... He advised teachers to study such fields as archaeology, astronomy, mythology, history, and Scripture.”[11]

          The subjects in the Renaissance educator’s mind were more concerned with the humanities than the sciences, but as will be noted, some sciences were also included in the curriculum. The focus was to result in a well-rounded individual who could think for themselves and think about subjects, thus discuss them rather than memorising their content, at least as indicated by Erasmus. Other subjects that were studied during this period were: poetry, moral philosophy, rhetoric, grammar, ancient authors,[12] ethics[13] and Latin, of course.

          There were also contemporary authors that were considered important as well and their writings were included in reading lists. “In literature, the works of such Italian writers as Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio became especially important.”[14] These authors presented questions of morality which the students would have to comprehend and discuss. Here is some of the presentation of the student who could think for themselves. A similar approach to education is evident in the Elizabethan education, but this is no real surprise as the same humanist approach is present. The Renaissance education can be seen as a backdrop to fill in where information is not available specifically about Elizabethan education. For the Elizabethans, the focus was ensuring that a model citizen was created from the learning with the appropriate liturgical learning.

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[1] Web Solutions (2020) “Education in Europe: From the Renaissance to the Enlightenment”, https://science.jrank.org/pages/9078/Education-in-Europe-From-Renaissance-Enlightenment.html, [accessed 13/2/2020]

[2] Universidad de Somoso (2009) “VIII Education During the Renaisssance” in Education History, http://education14.blogspot.com/2008/11/viii-education-during-renaissance.html, [accessed 27/5/20]

[3] ibid.

[4] ibid.

[5] Ibid.

[6] ibid.

[7] Bartlett, Dr. K. (2016) “Education in the Renaissance” in The Great Courses Daily, https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/education-in-the-renaissance/, [accessed 13/2/2020]

[8] Web Solutions (2020)

[9] Bartlett (2016)

[10] Web Solutions (2020)

[11] Universidad de Somoso (2009)

[12] Bartlett (2016)

[13] Universidad de Somoso (2009)

[14] ibid.

Bibliography

Bartlett, Dr. K. (2016) “Education in the Renaissance” in The Great Courses Daily, https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/education-in-the-renaissance/, [accessed 13/2/2020]

Web Solutions (2020) “Education in Europe: From the Renaissance to the Enlightenment”, https://science.jrank.org/pages/9078/Education-in-Europe-From-Renaissance-Enlightenment.html, [accessed 13/2/2020]

Universidad de Somoso (2009) “VIII Education During the Renaisssance” in Education History, http://education14.blogspot.com/2008/11/viii-education-during-renaissance.html, [accessed 27/5/20]