Saturday, June 23, 2012

English and Religion

Greetings,

Continuing on with the history of Elizabethan English we come to one of the elements which was pervasive in the development of the language and set it to challenge classical languages. Religion had a huge impact on the development of English and it is one aspect that cannot be ignored. In many ways it supplied the inspiration to lift the language upward.

Introduction


            Religion had a tremendous impact upon the development of Early Modern English and by result on Elizabethan English. This was due to the influence which religion had upon the importance of knowing and understanding language in order to be aware of changes, and more to the point putting information into people’s hands in order to form opinions. The prevalence of the English language in the religious sphere had a great impact upon the acceptance of the language as acceptable for scholarly works as well. For this discussion an examination of this development and where it led will be the focus.

Bibles in English


“Because they [bibles] are all translations of the same core set of texts, the different versions can throw special light on changes in orthography, grammar and vocabulary throughout the period.” (Crystal, 2003:59)

            Bibles are a most useful resource for the study of language as they are all from the same core texts, thus the changes found in them should mostly be due to the changes in language. This is especially the case where the bibles have been published in a relatively short space of time between one another as the closer that they are published the closer the language is and thus increases their usefulness. However, the researcher still needs to be careful with regard to their use as evidence for language change as there were differences dependent on the translator, author and publisher.

“they [bibles] display great variation, not only in theological slant and stylistic level, but also in typography, presentation, editorial matter, and mode of presentation.” (Crystal, 2003:59)

            This highlights the use of the bible as a simple resource for the researcher, but does not delve into the more important issues which surround them. Religious texts for the most part were written in Latin, this kept the knowledge which was kept within them to a small selection of individuals. These individuals were mostly men of religion and noblemen who could afford to learn to read the languages that the texts were written in. The concept of writing the bible in English was revolutionary.

“During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries translating and publishing the Bible in the language of the common people became as revolutionary an act as, in the eighteenth century, advancing the proposition that states should be ruled by democratic institutions, not kings.” (McCrum, 2010:67)

            The writing of the bible into English, and thus giving access to more members of the public reduced the power that the clergy had, and reduced their necessity, or so they saw. However, this was in order, especially in the Elizabethan period to give access to the people to the changes being made in religion, and more to the point to make it a people’s religion, and in part reduce some of the influence of Rome. The impact of this was to increase the presence of English amongst the people.

“From 1535 to 1568 no fewer than five major new versions [of the Bible] were published … and became the most widely read texts of the sixteenth century, with a huge influence on the dissemination of English.” (McCrum, 2010:72)

            The knowledge of English in order to keep up with changes in religion became a civic duty and thus increased the developments within the language. This was caused by the Protestant Reformation as the only way for this to succeed was for popular support to be gained. The only way to do this was for people to be able to read what was written, and as such these texts had to be written in English.

“The role of English was given impetus by the Protestant Reformation, which placed a religious duty of literacy on all, and provided national texts for the purpose: the vernacular Bible and Prayer Book.” (Smith, 2005:9)

            This demonstrates a huge impact that religion had upon the development of English especially in the Elizabethan period. With the increase of literacy, even on a small scale, the language was bound to change and develop. With the popular presence of the language amongst the people it was also bound to challenge the idea that the classical languages were the only ones suitable for study.

The Defeat of Latin


“In the defeat of Latin and the final establishment of English as the sole literary medium in England, a considerable part was played by the religious disputes that raged from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. During the Reformation, people engaged in controversy wanted to be read by as large a public as possible.” (Barber, 2000:175)

            Latin was considered to be the official language of scholarly works and also religious observance up until the Protestant Reformation. The Roman Catholic services were all held in Latin and all of the texts were also written in the same. The Anglican Church changed this in order to be a real “Church of England” thus giving access to the texts to the common man. To have a language used for official texts of religion and scholarly work, can only but increase its prestige. “The translation of the Bible into English, moreover, and the changeover from Latin to English in church services, raised the prestige of English.” (Barber, 2000:176).

            The prestige of English was only assisted by the arguments on a scholarly level about the new religion as the arguments were not confined to the scholars but needed to be disseminated amongst the people. This resulted in even the scholarly arguments being written and published in English. The change in the use of language in this instance was in order to reach the largest audience (Barber, 2000:176). As a result it can only be seen that other scholarly arguments would get the same treatment in order to reach their maximum audiences as well. Thus Latin was in effect beaten by popularity and the necessity to increase the readership.

Conclusion


            Bibles are a most useful tool for the researcher in order to track the changes in language over a period of time as long as care is taken with their use. In the history of Elizabethan English their significance is even greater as they were one of the greatest weapons for promoting the new religion, and by a result the prestige of English as a language. English emerged from the sixteenth century as a force to be reckoned with displacing Latin in various areas, and this is of significance

            Only through the impact of religion and the resulting expectations of people being able to read their own native tongue could the language have had such an impact. It can clearly be seen that before this revolution the core texts were written in Latin and thus gave very restricted access. With the requirement to disseminate the information to as much of the people as possible in order that the struggle became popular, the change to the vernacular language of the people could only but impact the language, increasing its prestige and also reduce that of the classical languages. Thus it can be seen that the impact of religion upon Elizabethan English is a part of its history that cannot be ignored, but needs to be taken into account in order to see other elements of historical significance.

Bibliography


Barber, C. (2000) The English Language: A Historical Introduction, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Crystal, D. (2003) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2nd ed), Cambridge University Press, New York, USA

McCrum, R. (2010) Globish: How the English Language Became the World’s Language, Penguin Group (Australia), Camberwell, Australia

Smith, J. (2005) Essentials of Early English, Routledge, New York, USA

Monday, June 11, 2012

An Introductory History of Elizabethan English

Greetings,

The following forms one part of "A Short History of Elizabethan English" which I am in the process of writing. What will follow here, and in the following posts will be the articlised versions of the chapters of this history. Each is designed to be succinct on its own in order that the entire thing does not have to be posted which would make for a very long blog, however each does join with one another in order to complete the entire history. An important note, these are aimed at the historical aspects of the language rather than the technical ones, as this will come later on.

Cheers,

Henry.

Introduction

            Before delving into the specifics of various elements of the history of Elizabethan English, it is useful to look at the subject overall in order to examine the history of the language in a more general manner. This gives the chance to see generalised patterns in the history of the language before examining specific aspects of the language and will give some direction in which the discussion will proceed. This discussion is best made on general terms in order to get a feeling for the history of the language rather than being concerned with specifics.

            The first part of the history is to look at the development of the language toward Early Modern English (EModE) and thus toward Elizabethan English. This examination needs to go backward somewhat in order to achieve the best view of what is present in this developmental history. The tracking of this history is important as it will demonstrate the importance of EModE to the modern language.

            Every language has influences which are placed upon it from within and from without. From within the language it is most useful to examine the most prolific and influential authors and text. Then to look to the external it is useful to see what the language is based upon. This leads to the following part on the rise of the language.

            In the early part of its history English was considered to be a juvenile language, lacking in the sophistication of older ones such as Latin. This part of the history tracks the rise of English from juvenile language to one which is accepted for important works. The Reformation figures as important in this process.

            Finally is an examination of Elizabethan English. The first part of this is an examination of Elizabethan English as a part of EModE. Next is to examine the impact of the language on the period and indeed the period on the language. This all culminates in the development of the language toward the modern language.

            The information presented is more of an introduction to the history of Elizabethan English more than anything else. While there are specifics which will be noted and pointed out there is still room for investigation present. With an overall picture of the language and how it developed through history it is then possible to examine various elements of this development in more detail.

Developmental History

            The history of a language needs to be studied like any other phenomenon through the collection of data. Indeed in the case of language it can be the smallest details which can be the most significant. “The study of the English language relies on an accumulation of tiny details” (Crystal, 2010:8). This is a study of a historical process in which people learn how to communicate with one another, thus it is an important phenomenon worth studying. The important thing is that it is this process is a developmental one starting in one form and moving to another, and just as with many other historical phenomena there are not clearly defined parts of the development. “Language change is no different from other historical developments in that it does not proceed in stages but rather by overlaps.” (Nevalainen, 2006:3).

            With language as with other phenomena it is the interactions which are the most significant and present changes in the language over time. With regard to this language changes as a result of these interactions and changes form, “thus the changing forms of a particular language through time are the result of their interaction with that language’s functions.” (Mugglestone, 2006:120). This demonstrates changes within the language over time due to interaction with itself and also external influences. As far as a developmental history of Early Modern English the transition from Middle English to Early Modern English was one of elaboration (Mugglestone, 2006:122), meaning that the real change from one to the other was an increase in complexity. What is also important with regard to this and highlights the overlapping nature of the development is that it happened over time.


“it took some 400 years before a ‘standard English’ evolved – a variety of English in which educated people all came to use the same rules of grammar, spelling and punctuation.” (Crystal, 2010:8)


            In fact there is no real “standard” form of EModE as it was in a state of flux and development over its entire history. It is only after this period that there is any real standardisation of the language which was commonly adhered to. However it was through this flux and development that the modern language was allowed to form, indeed as a result of the combination of both instability in the language and the resulting development in EModE that the modern language gained many of the features which it now contains (Mugglestone, 2006:149). The developmental period of EModE through the four hundred year period allowed for developments in the language including an increase in vocabulary through self-development and borrowing of words, which was one of the more significant developments.


“the Early Modern English period is marked by an unprecedented lexical growth. It is achieved both by extensive borrowing from other languages and by exploiting native resources by means of word-formation.” (Lass, 1999:332)

Influences on the Language



“All textbooks on the history of English agree that the two most important influences on the development of the Renaissance are the works of William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) and the King James Bible of 1611” (Crystal, 2003:62)


            Every language has influences which are placed upon it. Some of these are internal influences and some of these are external influences. In the case of English and its development through the Renaissance period, it had both, though it could be argued that it was the internal influences which made the greatest impact upon the language.

Shakespeare, as mentioned above, had a great impact upon the language and is recognised for his achievements in this area. It could even be argued that without the influence of Shakespeare the language would not have turned out the way that it did. “The Shakespearean impact on the language was chiefly in the area of the lexicon,” (Crystal, 2003:62). In this particular area Shakespeare coined or at least recorded in the vicinity of two thousand new words. While this is often recognised as one of his greatest areas of impact upon the language, he was also a great manipulator of the language and many idioms used in the modern language are credited to him even though people use them without recognising them (Crystal, 2003:63). As far as individuals are concerned there was no real other author which had so much impact upon the language at the time.

The English language in the Renaissance period was in a state of flux changing in mode of expression and rules. At this stage the language was not recognised as able to stand on its own, nor was it recognised as a language of learning, that was the area of the classic languages, Latin and Greek. Both had an influence on the language and how it would develop, “one result of this Latin influence on English was the introduction of a large number of Latin loan-words into the language.” (Barber, 2000:177). However the control of the classical languages and the subjugation of English would not to last for long.

Rise of English

            The classical languages are those which were studied in schools and more to the point at universities, the recognised seats of learning and it was due to this that they had a hold over what language was suitable. The English language criticised as not suitable for learning better done in Greek or Latin (Crystal, 2003:60). For the most part, it can be argued, was that all of the classical authors were written in either Latin or Greek and that English was a relative newcomer to the scene without clear establishment. However as arguments of a religious and intellectual nature began to involve more than those learned individuals, English began to take hold and assert itself.


“In the defeat of Latin and the final establishment of English as the sole literary medium in England, a considerable part was played by the religious disputes that raged from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. During the Reformation, people engaged in controversy wanted to be read by as large a public as possible.” (Barber, 2000:175)


            The revolution in learning began as early as the Tudors and as this spread so people wanted to know more and be involved more in learning and things associated with learning. The Reformation provided a spark of interest to the situation and encouraged more people to read, and thus be informed. The only real way to do this was to write in English, thus much was written in English in order to reach largest audience especially in regard to religious matters (Barber, 2000:176). This took the place of the classical languages indeed as more people learnt the language more was changed from classical languages into the vernacular. One of the biggest steps with regard to this revolution was the writing of the Bible in English, “The translation of the Bible into English, moreover, and the changeover from Latin to English in church services, raised the prestige of English.” (Barber, 2000:176). The fact that a fundamental religious text was translated into English demonstrated the prestige of the language and this was only to reinforce the position of the language. This was only the beginning of the process.

            The Bible was one of the first texts to be translated into English so that more people could read it. However it would not be the last. Some of this was due to the influence of the up and rising merchant class, often of whom did not know the classical languages but still wanted access to the new learning that was coming about in the Renaissance period, thus, “the rise of social and occupational groups which had little or no Latin, but which were eager to read and learn, and wanted books in English.” (Barber, 2000:176). This increased the popularity of the language for reading intellectual matters and new discoveries.

The Reformation and the changes in religion only served to fuel the fire of passion for learning in order that people were able to keep up with the movements in religious thought and argument. Thus more and more was written of an intellectual nature in English rather than the classical languages. This was a popular struggle not only for the new religion but also for the language of the nation. As more and more was written in English so the language gained power and recognition. “By the end of the 16th century, the matter was resolved. English became the language of learning.” (Crystal, 2003:61). A victory over the classical languages, though they still retained some of their influence.

Elizabethan English


“The story of English thus becomes more definite in the 16th century, with more evidence available about the way the language was developing, both in the texts themselves, and in a growing number of observations dealing with such areas as grammar, vocabulary, writing system, and style. In that century scholars seriously got down to talking about their language.” (Crystal, 2003:56)


            The beginning of the real dominance of the English language over Latin and other classical languages can be seen in Elizabethan English. It was born out of a time in which the language was in flux but this was to be one of the great advantages of the language as it allowed it to grow and develop over time. The solidification in the language is found here where the language becomes something in and of itself. Rather than being supported by other languages, elements of other languages are used to enhance the language. “In the Elizabethan period the English language flexes its muscles. It begins to experiment, to play around, to show off.” (Gooden, 2009:75). This makes for a very exciting sort of history to be examining. What is useful to note about all the developments here is that they reflected the social history of the time and were buoyed along by them. 


“there is a profound connection between this development [written standardization and lexical augmentation] and the historical and social developments of the sixteenth century in which vernacular literacy played so important a role: the English Reformation, and the rise of Elizabethan and Jacobean vernacular culture.” (Mugglestone, 2006:143)


            The importance of the vernacular language to the developments of the period has already been presented in part. In the Elizabethan period, this particular situation is only enhanced by the growing popularity of the language put in place by the need for more of the population to be able to read the arguments for themselves and support one side or another. The growth of the Church of England was a popular one and could have only gained such support by allowing more people to be able to read what was being written and as such writing it in English. In this way religion assists with popularisation of English due to religious texts printed in English, in plain language easy to read and understand (Gooden, 2009:78). This could only lead to developments in the language and more concern for its form and function as has been indicated above.

            This was the search for a language that people could express themselves in clearly and concisely and be heard by more and more of the population. This period of examination and codification by men such as John Hart and Richard Mulcaster saw a development toward a mature language. “The early modern period in England saw the first systematic attempts to create, or recreate, a universal language, a ‘perfect’ tongue.” (Mugglestone, 2006:212). This was the development which led to our modern language as it stands as it was only really cleaned up and assembled together in the following periods. True, there were still some areas which needed work, but the language itself, the core elements were developed in the Elizabethan period.

Conclusion

            What has been presented is an overall look at the history of Early Modern English with a focus on Elizabethan English. This overall picture allows for the discovery of overall trends in the history of the language in order to see how it developed in a very general manner. From this overall picture the specifics of the history of the language can be put into place and then examined to see how they fit into the overall picture, this gives the history of the language some perspective and reveals many of the factors which need to be taken into account.

            The first part of the investigation was to examine a developmental history of the language and put it in a historical picture. This took into account the development from Middle English to Early Modern English and how this development over the period of time allowed for changes in the language. Significantly, it was demonstrated that language acts much like any other historical phenomenon moving in leaps and bounds with connections between what has come before and what came afterward. What this development also demonstrated was the unstable nature of the language at the time.

            The influences on a language come both from internal and external sources which is significant. In the case of EModE, some of the most marked influences can be laid at the feet of a single author from the later part of the history of the language, William Shakespeare. This not to say that he was the only one who had an influence, it is just he had a great influence on the language, more than most. From external sources it was the classical languages and mostly Latin which had the most influence on the language. Markers of this can be still found in the current language.

            English had to crawl up and defeat the influence of the classical languages in order to exert its influence and establish its dominance. The rise of English as a language of learning and study took a popular uprising and call for more to be written in the language. One of the most significant steps in this process was the translation of the Bible into English. As the writers of the Reformation found that in order to reach the greatest number of people, English was the best language to write in, English as a language began and continued to exert dominance and eventually displace the classical languages. This achievement could not have come about without the fluid nature of the language and also the social history of the period.

            Elizabethan English only covers a very small portion of EModE; indeed it only covers about fifty years or an eighth of the period which the language covers. However, it is significant as it was during this period that some of the most exciting developments of the language took place, and also in this time which English began to exert influence as a mature and developed language. Many of the greatest advances made for the language were made in this period and thus marks it as significant. However, it should not be studied in isolation but placed in the background of the development of the language which took place before it to reveal the changes made in this period.

Bibliography


Barber, C. (2000) The English Language: A Historical Introduction, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Crystal, D. (2003) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2nd ed), Cambridge University Press, New York, USA

Crystal, D. (2010) Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices, The British Library, London, UK

Gooden, P. (2009) The Story of English: How the English Language Conquered the World, Quercus Publishing Plc, London, UK

Lass, R. (ed.)(1999) The Cambridge History of the English Language: Volume III: 1476 – 1776, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Mugglestone, L. (ed) (2006) The Oxford History of English, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK

Nevalainen, T. (2006) An Introduction to Early Modern English, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland