Standardisation of Language

Greetings,

This is the fifth entry for my investigation into the history of Elizabethan English. The post following flows on from the previous one about the reformers to look at the standardisation of the language and how this was started in the Elizabethan period.

Introduction

            Standardisation is a process in which something is made to create a normal or standard form. This idea is usually applied to physical objects rather than theoretical concepts however the idea behind it applies to language just as much. In order to understand this process, an idea of what it means must be established first. This enables a common ground for understanding.
            Fluctuations in language relate to the changes in the language which can come about through various processes. It is actually the state of fluctuation, especially in a language, that results in the desire for standardisation so that all the rules are the same, creating commonality in the language. In the case of Elizabethan English and also Early Modern English (EModE) printers and editorial decisions had a great impact upon this process, both on the production of documents and also the writers themselves.
            The history of the standardisation of EModE lays the foundation for the process of standardisation and this actually started previous to it. There were influences from abroad due to the social history previously and also in the contemporary period to EModE which had a great effect on the language. It was through this history that the language eventually became more standardised.
            The dialect of a language and that which becomes dominant is usually the one which eventually becomes the commonly accepted standard. This was also the case for English in England. The dominance for this would come from the centres of learning and commerce in the south and then spread north. This presents an example of the standardisation of a language as other dialects fade out and are taken over by a stronger one.

What is Standardisation?

“In general, it is helpful to think of standardisation as a sociolinguistic process which expands the range of the uses to which a language is put, but restricts its internal variability.” (Nevalainen, 2006:8)

            Standardisation is a concept which is most often used to describe physical products rather than more fluid phenomena such as language, however it is useful to consider this as a concept applied to language as its elements become more commonly used, or standard. In the case of language the concept of it becoming standard implies practices and spellings which become more and more common usage, defining the language by these aspects. Indeed, Nevalainen (2006) gives a very useful definition of a standard language.

“Standard language has been defined as one that shows maximal variation in function and minimal variation in form. Maximal variation of function means that a language community uses its language for all purposes, both locally and nationwide.” (Nevalainen, 2006:29)

           This was the unknown target of the reformers such as John Hart and Richard Mulcaster when they attempted to reform the language and make rules as to how it should be formed. The process of standardisation of the language did not occur quickly. In fact there was quite a bit of fluctuation in the language before this was to occur.

Fluctuation in Language

“there is no doubt that, throughout the early decades of the 17^th century, the English writing system was widely perceived to be a mess … there was not generally recognized standard.” (Crystal, 2003:66)

           The evidence for this can be found clearly in the documents of the period. There was no standard for spelling, punctuation or grammar established leaving such matters up to the authors and publishers of the documents. With no recognisable standard it is of little surprise that writing system would be considered a mess and this fluctuation in the language was not assisted by the printers of the period who became the target for criticism.

“There were many unfavourable comments about the chaotic nature of the writing system at the time, and printers in particular came in for a great deal of criticism.” (Crystal, 2003:66)

           Some of the criticism levelled at the printers was unjustified while some of it could be seen to be. Authors also had their part to play in the absence of standard language and their expectations to have their works printed as they were. However, with the introduction of printers from outside England and unfamiliarity with the language some of the inconsistencies in the language were clearly as a result of the printers’ presentations. This is especially the case where changes were made to the original texts,

“arbitrariness also crept in when printers altered spelling (such as adding or deleting a final –e) in order to make a line of words end neatly at the right-hand margin.” (Crystal, 2003:66)

           The addition of the final –e as an editorial consideration is one that needs to be examined and others along with this. Examples of this sort of decision on the part of the printers can be found in many documents from the Elizabethan period. It is due to these inconsistencies that reformers attacked the printers and the language that was being produced by them, as this did nothing for encouraging the authors to take care with their own. What is most interesting is that even though the language was in such a state of flux in the Elizabethan period, the process of standardisation actually started years beforehand.

History of Standardisation

“In English the process of standardisation began in the late Middle Ages with the expansion of the vernacular to many functions earlier occupied by French or Latin.” (Nevalainen, 2006:8)

           The influence of French was due to the Norman invasion of 1066, and the influence of Latin was through the influence of the church where the primary education came from in the Middle Ages. The fact that English began to expand into the areas occupied by these two languages in the Middle Ages demonstrates the growing influence and importance of English even in this period. Aside from this growing influence other parts of the language had become standardised by this period, grammar by word-order for example (Smith, 2005:12). This was heavily based on the Latin grammar, but this is no surprise and continues to be the same even in the modern period.

            The standardisation processes would only have more and more of an impact as elements became more and more commonly used. The process which began in the Middle Ages was in full flight by the time of Shakespeare. The standardisation of written English and emergence of pronunciation became standard in sixteenth century (Smith, 2005:9). This was toward the later part of this period and was influenced by the reformers of the middle to late sixteenth century. It was London which would lead the charge and set the standards. This should be of little surprise considering the population and being a centre of culture and learning.

“Spelling, in public texts at any rate, became much more fixed. It was modelled on the usages adopted by the early printers, broadly those current in sixteenth-century London.” (Smith, 2005:124)

           As in all cases private texts are less controlled as they were not typically for public consumption and thus less likely to be affected by public opinion. The printers began to adopt those practices presented by reformers such as John Hart and Richard Mulcaster in order that the language was better suited to perform the functions it was designed for. The changes in language were extremely impressive over the period of the sixteenth century, but toward a standard. “As Caxton would have predicted, the English language changed a great deal between 1500 and 1700; but dialect levelling also took place.” (Nevalainen, 2006:31).

Dialect

            Dialects form a kind of standard form of the language which is usually isolated to a particular social group or particular area of a country. This can be seen especially in countries as vast as China in which the dialect can change in a short time of travelling. The same was the case for English in England at the time of Shakespeare, the “language of England and lowland Scotland, but it had barely penetrated into Wales, Ireland, and the Scottish Highlands and islands” (Bryson, 2009:58). What is most interesting is that it was due to population and economic pressures that the lowland dialect or that of London would eventually dominate.

“George Puttenham noted that the English of London stretched not much more than sixty miles from the city [London]. But its influence was growing all the time.” (Bryson, 2009:52)

           London was a centre of commerce and learning and also had one of the largest populations in the period. These factors allowed the language to spread and become common within London in a relatively short period of time and then allowed it to spread. Indeed the English of London went from a medieval to a modern language in a relatively short period of time, taking about twenty years (Bryson, 2009:52). This is the dialect which would eventually dominate most of England and become the standard form of English which is known today.

Conclusion

            In order for a language to become standardised, it must first take control of and indeed defeat the forces of fluctuation in the language. This is a long and trying process and was the goal of reformers such as Richard Mulcaster and John Hart. This standardisation process establishes benchmarks for the language as to see what is accepted as part of the language and what is considered to be against the accepted rules of the language.
            The process of standardisation is exactly that, a process and this takes time. The fact that the process started in the Middle Ages and continued well into the Renaissance period, and even beyond demonstrates the extended nature of this process. This process allows a standard form of the language to form and thus allow for deeper examination and further development of the language. In most cases what will eventuate is that one dialect will eventually become more common and become more dominant than others and thus become the standard.
            In the case of EModE the process was a long one and proceeded with many fluctuations in the language as can be seen in Elizabethan English. This makes the language difficult to pin down but also allows for great experimentation and thus development in the language. In this way fluctuation expressed in the language allows for a better form of the language when it is finally standardised. Needless to say in the history of Elizabethan English the process of standardisation was an on-going one and did not finally come about until after its period, however examples of this process can be seen as the language becomes more established.

Bibliography

Bryson, B. (2009) Mother Tongue: The Story of the English Language, Penguin Books Ltd, London, UK

Crystal, D. (2003) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2^nd ed), Cambridge University Press, New York, USA

Nevalainen, T. (2006) An Introduction to Early Modern English, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland

Smith, J. (2005) Essentials of Early English, Routledge, New York, USA

The Reformers of Language

Greetings,

This the fourth part of my short history of Elizabethan English. This post deals with the reformers of the language, those brave individuals who took it upon themselves to strive to standardise the language. They had varying successes, and their influences can still be felt even in our modern language.

Introduction

            The reformers were those individuals who decided that there needed to be some changes made in the language and put their minds to the task. Their idea was to standardise the language with regard to the make-up of the language in spelling and other areas. While we can generalise and refer to them in a group, it is important that they were not some organised group and they did not always agree with one another, indeed there were some fundamental areas in which they did not agree.
            While the main area of discussion will be spelling, there are other elements of the language which will appear in the discussion. It is merely that spelling would seem to have been the focus of their reform for many, other elements such as punctuation and grammar were present but not as prevalent. With regard to the discussion of spelling the first area that will be discussed will be the question of logographic versus phonemic spelling reform. This will lead on to a closer look at phonemic forms of spelling and ideas related to it.
            There are three reformers which will be spoken about in this discussion for the most part; however more of the focus will be on two. These two, John Hart and Richard Mulcaster had the greatest impact on the reformation of the language even if their ideas were put aside to begin with. Some detailed discussion will be made of these two especially but others will also be mentioned and their contributions noted.
            The final part of the discussion will be the effects of the reformers on the language, both immediately and later on. This aspect of history is important as it demonstrates how the language was changing and evolving over time. The fact that these individuals wished to reform the language and refine it demonstrates a clear interest in improvement in the language in the Elizabethan period and a step toward what is now Modern English.

Spelling as Key Argument

            The key argument that the reformers were examining for the most part was to standardise spelling practices, however the methods for which this was to be executed were varied. There were, however some key arguments made by the various reformers focussed upon how words should be spelt. For the most part they supported a phonemic orthography, spelling words how they were pronounced. Other points which were raised were with regard to revealing the etymology of the word in its spelling, making distinction between homophones, morphological spelling, indication of vowel length by doubling vowels and adding –e, and doubling consonant for short vowel (Lass, 1999:21). What will be demonstrated is that some of these ideas would come to pass as supported ideas and others were left by the wayside. While most supported a phonemic system of spelling there was an argument against it and support for logographic spelling.

“Fixing English in its Present-day form was virtually completed in print by about 1650. The process was astoundingly rapid … bear in mind that even the basic principles of spelling continued to be debated by orthoepists and grammarians in the sixteenth century. There was no agreement as to whether English spelling ought to be phonemic, reflecting pronunciation as closely as possible, or logographic, distinguishing words pronounced alike … but spelling them differently.” (Nevalainen, 2006:32)

            So the grand debate amongst the reformers in the Elizabethan period was between those who supported a phonemic form of spelling and those who supported a logographic form of spelling. Of course both approaches had their advantages and disadvantages and what will be found in the modern form of English is really a combination of the two in operation, some words are spelt how they sound and some are not. The problem with a phonemic form of spelling is the question of dialect and other different forms of pronunciation.

“Whatever phonemic fit there was between spelling and pronunciation in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was further upset by ongoing sound changes in the southern pronunciation system.” (Nevalainen, 2006:32)

            In order to understand the problem here it needs to be understood that there was not a single dialect of English in England at the time; indeed it could be argued that there still is no universal dialect. This meant that spelling formed based on pronunciation was an issue as the same word could be pronounced differently depending on whom it was said by and where they were from. Indeed even as the more dominant dialect centralised on London took over still there were issues of pronunciation based on dialect. Still, the supporters of a phonemic spelling had a long history and presented their arguments well.

“In the sixteenth century there were many advocates of a more phonemic spelling system, most notably John Cheke, Thomas Smith, John Hart and William Bullokar. Hart first presented his proposal in The Opening of the Unreasonable Writing of the Inglish Toung (1551) and almost two decades later in An Orthographie (1569) and A Methode (1570).” (Nevalainen, 2006:32)

John Hart

            John Hart promoted the idea of the phonemic spelling system over the logographic as has already been presented above, however it is more useful to examine the reforms proposed by Hart in more detail. The two main areas of interest in reforming the English language which Hart was interested in was spelling and punctuation. His first argument was against the haphazard spelling conventions or lack thereof found in printed works of his time (Lass, 1999:25). There was no standard form present meaning that words could, and often were spelt several different ways.
            As stated, his argument was a phonemic one connecting spelling and pronunciation, “Hart’s remarkable work [An Orthographie (1569)] was the first systematic exposition of the belief that spelling should reflect pronunciation.” (Crystal, 2010:37). The fact that he took a systematic approach to the discussion is important as it can be seen that there was an attempt to present his ideas on scientific principles, or at least close to them. Indeed this phonemic idea with regard to spelling was the same way that he approached the idea of punctuation.
             John Hart expressed his own views on punctuation in 1551 in his ‘The opening of the unreasonable writing of our Inglish toung’ explaining that punctuation teaches how to say what is written (Lass, 1999:21). With what has already been presented a clear statement is made with regard to the phonemic nature of the language and the importance of the language being presented as it is spelt. This requires the language to use the punctuation marks to put in those parts of the spoken language which are not in the written.

Indeed most of the punctuation marks, which are found in the modern language are explained and detailed for use by Hart with an exception being the semi-colon which is absent. In this description he also explains the difference between the use of round and square brackets, the former for that which could be left out and the latter for extra notes (Lass, 1999:21). Further Hart then proceeds to explain how capitals should appear in the language when it is written and explains their use. For his part Hart feels that capitals should be used for the beginning of a sentence, proper names and important common nouns (Lass, 1999:21), thus using their inclusion to highlight important words within the text and for the clear beginnings of a sentence.

William Bullokar

“The first grammar written in English was by William Bullokar (c.1530 – 1609). His full Grammar at Larg[e] is now lost, but an abbreviated version which he called Pamphlet for Grammar, is known from 1586.” (Crystal, 2010:39)

            William Bullokar is most noted for his exposition of the grammar of the English language of his period and the presentation in a methodical manner. Bullokar, as noted previously was also a supporter of phonemic language practices, especially with regard to spelling, so it would be expected that the same would be true for his grammar. What is interesting with regard to this is that Bullokar’s grammar is heavily indebted to William Lily’s Latin grammar (Crystal, 2010:39). Even as the language was changing and other aspects coming into play in order to anglicise the language, still there was the influence from the classical languages. This is important as it meant that Latin would still form the foundation for how the language was formed and constructed. However, the phonemic system was not without resistance as has been mentioned previously.

Richard Mulcaster

“Despite its supporters, the general idea of a spelling reform based on phonemic principle met with staunch opposition. Richard Mulcaster, an influential schoolmaster, denounced the idea in his Elementarie, a popular guide for teachers which he published in 1582.” (Nevalainen, 2006:35)

            Mulcaster had his own methods and reforms for spelling and these he detailed in Elementarie. His reforms were based on the shape of words according to rules established for each letter. Indeed Mulcaster made it very clear as to what his seven principles were as he laid them out.

            1. General – properties and functions of letters

            2. Proportion – homophones the same spelling
            3. Composition – writing of compounds
            4. Derivation – writing of derivatives
            5. Distinction – punctuation and accents
            6. Enfranchisement – spelling of foreign loans
            7. Prerogative – traditional orthography over new (Lass, 1999:33)

            These seven key principles underwrote all that was written in his exploration of the language. The first gives specific functions for each letter describing how each will function, followed by the second supporting the idea that words that sound the same should be spelt the same. The third discusses the writing of compounds, words attached to one another, to follow this is how derivative words, ones based on others should be formed. With little surprise Mulcaster also attributes some of the effect of punctuation to the pronunciation and spelling of words. The final two principles are focussed on the many loan words which came into the language giving preference to native spellings over new ones. With these principles established and especially with the last two, it is of little surprise that Mulcaster was in favour of using native words over new and thus also a traditional alphabet.

“Mulcaster bases his principles of spelling on the traditional alphabet and suggests that the use of each letter of the alphabet should be governed by general orthographic rules.” (Nevalainen, 2006:35)

            These orthographic rules were designed to simplify the spelling of words and enable for a more universal approach to the spelling of words. Once again a scientific approach to the formation of the language is evident in Mulcaster as it was in the previous reformers. What can be noticed is that Mulcaster’s approach is a logographic one rather than a phonemic one. Mulcaster opposes purely phonetic orthography on the basis of dialect and general speech patterns and superfluous letters not representing any sound (Lass, 1999:33). According to Mulcaster each letter needed a purpose in the word, and that this should be firmly established based on rules of the letters rather than how they sound. Indeed his approach reached for a universal spelling of the language and the establishment of singular spellings for words established in his book.

            The book being discussed is Elementarie as previously discussed in this part of the discussion. While the principles upon which the book was based have been expressed here. It is useful still to look at the book itself a little to see some of what it was. The book expressed the rules and principles presented above but it was more than that, Mulcaster’s (1582) Elementarie a milestone “because this was the first consistent attempt to codify and promulgate detailed rules for normalising and regularising traditional English spelling.” (Lass, 1999:20). It is the codification and normalising of the language which is most significant here, and indeed the same ideas have promulgated into the present period of the modern language in the form of dictionaries.

Effects

            Once the reformers and their principles and proposals have been discussed, it is then time to move on to the effects of these proposals on the language, both in the era of the reformers and also later on. With regard to these effects, it will be noted that for the most part the reformers’ proposals had little effect on the development of the language but shaped the views of later orthoepists and later printing houses (Lass, 1999:21).

What can also be noted here is that while the various reformers may have seen things from different points of view it was similar problems that were attempted to be remedied. The abuses noted by Hart were exactly the same as Mulcaster attempted to remedy both failed, but influenced following reformers and printers (Lass, 1999:26). In the rivalry between Hart and Mulcaster on paper they approached the same problems from different points of view, and eventually one of the methods was bound to eventually win out over the other.

“In the seventeenth century, the advocates of a phonemic spelling system lost their battle against custom. Textbooks for reading and spelling like Mulcaster’s had a direct impact on how English orthography was taught and learned. Edmund Coote’s The English Schoole-Maister (1596), which contained a spelling-book with exercises and a hard-word dictionary, was one of the most popular textbooks of the time” (Nevalainen, 2006:36)

            While the phonemic spelling system would eventually lose out to the logographic system this is not to say that the reforms proposed by these theorists would have no impact whatsoever. In the case of Hart the problem was not that it had no impact it was the lasting impact was deficient. “Although it did have an impact on some contemporaries, Hart’s proposal for a spelling reform failed to gain general acceptance.” (Nevalainen, 2006:33).

For a system to be completely accepted it needs to gain general acceptance. However this was not to say that the ideas which Hart proposed had no impact at all, “although his [Hart’s] particular system was never adopted, his views helped to form the climate that would eventually shape the character of English spelling.” (Crystal, 2010:37). The fact that some of the proposals for spelling which Hart made have had an impact upon English spelling is important in and of itself. More to the point examining Hart’s punctuation system, it was here that Hart would also have an impact on the language.

“Hart’s system of punctuation largely went back to the continental models introduced into England in the early sixteenth century. The system was adopted with some modifications by printers and educators in the following decades.” (Nevalainen, 2006:35)

            With the loss of the battle by the proponents of the phonemic spelling system it can be seen that it would be Richard Mulcaster whose proposals would have a greater impact on the language. Indeed it was Mulcaster’s proposals which would present an opportunity for the language to flourish and the beginnings of the standardisation of the language overall.

“[Richard] Mulcaster’s own views did a great deal to hasten the growth of regularization at the end of the 16^th century. His Elementarie provided a table listing recommended spellings for nearly 9,000 words, and influenced a generation of orthoepists (pronunciation teachers) and grammarians.” (Crystal, 2003:67)

            The proposals and principles presented by Mulcaster would eventually become generally accepted and his Elementarie presented many examples of these principles in written format so people could see them. Indeed over half of the principles presented by Mulcaster remain in use today (Crystal, 2010:38). The fact that these proposals, even half of them are present in the language more than four hundred years later presents an impact on the language recognised only by authors of the calibre of Shakespeare. Not only did Mulcaster’s principles become accepted by grammarians and orthoepists, but his book also can be seen as the forerunner to modern dictionaries.

“The book [The Elementarie 1582] includes a discussion of English spelling, and provides guidelines which proved influential. … the forerunner of modern spelling dictionaries.” (Crystal, 2010:38)

Conclusion

            While it can be seen that Mulcaster’s proposals would seem to have had the greatest impact upon the language, especially with regard to spelling, it is the overall effect of the reformers which is important. The language had been struggling for some time with instability in its form and little control over spelling or grammar. The reformers which have been presented and indeed other ones made their various attempts to standardise the language in order that some sort of rules could be used to govern the language. It could even be claimed that it was due to this standardisation that the language began to come to the fore.

            For the most part spelling became a focus for the reformers on the basis that without a standard form of spelling it would be difficult to communicate ideas. A standardised form of spelling enabled words to be understood better and become a foundation upon which much of the rest of the language could be based. This is not to say that other parts of the language are unimportant, quite the opposite. Punctuation and grammar were also parts of the language which were discussed in some detail. Interestingly all three, spelling, punctuation and grammar were all discussed on the basis of the same principles.
            The three reformers which have been presented, Hart, Bullokar and Mulcaster have been presented as three proponents of elements of the language which they expressed a need for reform. For the most part it was Hart and Mulcaster which were the focus, being two reformers on the same end of the same argument but with different views on how to solve the problems presented in the argument. The fact that these men would put so much energy into their arguments presents the importance of them.
            While many of the proposals presented were pushed by the wayside but the fact that elements of them can be found in the language shows a history of development through the language. These changes also present Elizabethan English as a language in flux with many changes happening in and around it. With this part of the history of the language presented, it is of little surprise that the language was in such a state of change and that there was only a very vague idea about the standard form of the language, and this was based upon previous models of it. Indeed the presence of the reformers demonstrates the goal of a standard language as important and something which was being striven for.

Bibliography

Crystal, D. (2003) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2^nd ed), Cambridge University Press, New York, USA

Crystal, D. (2010) Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices, The British Library, London, UK

Lass, R. (ed.)(1999) The Cambridge History of the English Language: Volume III: 1476 – 1776, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Nevalainen, T. (2006) An Introduction to Early Modern English, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland

English and Education

Greetings,

This is the third part of my history of Elizabethan English and it deals with the impact of education on the language. This will also take into account how the methods of education impacted on the language and how such methods enabled the language to change and adapt through the introduction of external influences. Education as an aspect in the history of Elizabethan English is one that plays its part, especially as it leads to other discussions within the history of the language.

Introduction

            Education has a significant part to play both in the history of a civilisation but also in the history of a language. It is through this sort of examination that the origins and developments in education can be seen. Education is how a particular idea will be passed from teacher to student and then to the wider community, in the case of a language the same is true. In the case of Elizabethan English the education and methods of education also impacted the language by bringing in external influences which will change the language and increase its complexity.

Models for Language: Still Classical

            The models for education in the Elizabethan period were still based on their classical models, inherited from the previous centuries. In grammar school it was the trivium which was taught, grammar, rhetoric and logic (Kermode, 2000:19). This is a model which was promoted in the earlier periods of history and flowed through to the sixteenth century. Indeed even the models for the language, as modern as it was in the period were still based on the classical languages. The models for writing were heavily based on the ancient authors of Greece and Rome and these models were especially prevalent in rhetoric (Kermode, 2000:19). With this sort of model in the early part of the education, there is little surprise that it took quite an extended period in order for things to change. However, education was increasing and knowledge was spreading.

Education Influences

            The sons of noble families left home and went travelling as apart of their education. In general it came down to one of three areas, wars, university or discovery. “Part of a young gentleman’s education was the grand tour of the continent,” (Barber, 2000:181). This was designed to broaden the gentleman’s horizons, have him make connections, and gain a better understanding of the world he lived in. Of course the travel and returning also resulted in these gentlemen bring back new ideas and this influenced the language.

            The Renaissance period in Europe was a time of discovery and also rediscovery and this was no different in London. There was a thirst for new ideas and new language in London in late sixteenth century (McCrum, 2010:74). With noble families especially wanting to see new ideas and understand what was happening about them, education had to increase to accommodate the new thoughts and ideas about language. The Tudors recognised this potential and did something about it.

“The sense of rare cultural community was intensified by the revolution in grammar school education and book production achieved under the Tudors. Shakespeare’s was an age in which, among the privileged, the book was now a familiar item of everyday use. Between 1558 and 1579, there were 3,850 new books published in London. This increased dramatically to 7,430 between 1580 and 1603, the years of Shakespeare’s debut.” (McCrum, 2010:73)

            Books are pretty common-place in the modern day world but for the Elizabethans and before they were a relatively restricted resource. This is because of the cost for the construction and publishing of them. The fact that there was such a marked increase in the presence of books demonstrates an increase in education and also interest in language. Indeed Shakespeare’s and other writer’s performances and the imagery within them were often used to highlight and explain events (Kermode, 2000:26). The plays and performances allowed such information to reach a much wider audience. The use of the language increased its popularity and with the interest in education, and the growth of the language itself, it is of little surprise that the status of English at the time began to increase, however, there was still not agreement on the status of the language in the sixteenth century (McCrum, 2010:74). The fact that there was debate about the status of the language is significant in itself in that it demonstrates the growth of the language.

Conclusion

            Education and its relationship to language is something that cannot be ignored, nor its significance denied. Indeed it is through education that a language spreads. The innovations in the language may be made outside of places of education, but it is through these that the language is spread amongst the people in a formal manner.

            When a language is modelled on old forms of language influence is made upon it and it also in some ways presents the language as somewhat more backward than the language upon which it was based. Even modern English as it is used today is still based upon the language models found in Latin for the most part. The useful thing about these models is that the form a foundation from which the education can be based and thus learning the language is given some force and authority.

            Just as language affects education so too does education affect language. The travelling of gentlemen across Europe brought back knowledge and ideas from outside England and this affected the language. New words were required to understand what was happening outside, and the quest for understanding resulted in an increased interest in the language and thus education as well. This development of the language in the Elizabethan period is something which cannot be ignored as it was through these developments that English became more respected.

Bibliography

Barber, C. (2000) The English Language: A Historical Introduction, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Kermode, F. (2000) Shakespeare’s Language, Penguin Books Ltd, London UK

McCrum, R. (2010) Globish: How the English Language Became the World’s Language, Penguin Group (Australia), Camberwell, Australia

English and Religion

Greetings,

Continuing on with the history of Elizabethan English we come to one of the elements which was pervasive in the development of the language and set it to challenge classical languages. Religion had a huge impact on the development of English and it is one aspect that cannot be ignored. In many ways it supplied the inspiration to lift the language upward.

Introduction

            Religion had a tremendous impact upon the development of Early Modern English and by result on Elizabethan English. This was due to the influence which religion had upon the importance of knowing and understanding language in order to be aware of changes, and more to the point putting information into people’s hands in order to form opinions. The prevalence of the English language in the religious sphere had a great impact upon the acceptance of the language as acceptable for scholarly works as well. For this discussion an examination of this development and where it led will be the focus.

Bibles in English

“Because they [bibles] are all translations of the same core set of texts, the different versions can throw special light on changes in orthography, grammar and vocabulary throughout the period.” (Crystal, 2003:59)

            Bibles are a most useful resource for the study of language as they are all from the same core texts, thus the changes found in them should mostly be due to the changes in language. This is especially the case where the bibles have been published in a relatively short space of time between one another as the closer that they are published the closer the language is and thus increases their usefulness. However, the researcher still needs to be careful with regard to their use as evidence for language change as there were differences dependent on the translator, author and publisher.

“they [bibles] display great variation, not only in theological slant and stylistic level, but also in typography, presentation, editorial matter, and mode of presentation.” (Crystal, 2003:59)

            This highlights the use of the bible as a simple resource for the researcher, but does not delve into the more important issues which surround them. Religious texts for the most part were written in Latin, this kept the knowledge which was kept within them to a small selection of individuals. These individuals were mostly men of religion and noblemen who could afford to learn to read the languages that the texts were written in. The concept of writing the bible in English was revolutionary.

“During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries translating and publishing the Bible in the language of the common people became as revolutionary an act as, in the eighteenth century, advancing the proposition that states should be ruled by democratic institutions, not kings.” (McCrum, 2010:67)

            The writing of the bible into English, and thus giving access to more members of the public reduced the power that the clergy had, and reduced their necessity, or so they saw. However, this was in order, especially in the Elizabethan period to give access to the people to the changes being made in religion, and more to the point to make it a people’s religion, and in part reduce some of the influence of Rome. The impact of this was to increase the presence of English amongst the people.

“From 1535 to 1568 no fewer than five major new versions [of the Bible] were published … and became the most widely read texts of the sixteenth century, with a huge influence on the dissemination of English.” (McCrum, 2010:72)

            The knowledge of English in order to keep up with changes in religion became a civic duty and thus increased the developments within the language. This was caused by the Protestant Reformation as the only way for this to succeed was for popular support to be gained. The only way to do this was for people to be able to read what was written, and as such these texts had to be written in English.

“The role of English was given impetus by the Protestant Reformation, which placed a religious duty of literacy on all, and provided national texts for the purpose: the vernacular Bible and Prayer Book.” (Smith, 2005:9)

            This demonstrates a huge impact that religion had upon the development of English especially in the Elizabethan period. With the increase of literacy, even on a small scale, the language was bound to change and develop. With the popular presence of the language amongst the people it was also bound to challenge the idea that the classical languages were the only ones suitable for study.

The Defeat of Latin

“In the defeat of Latin and the final establishment of English as the sole literary medium in England, a considerable part was played by the religious disputes that raged from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. During the Reformation, people engaged in controversy wanted to be read by as large a public as possible.” (Barber, 2000:175)

            Latin was considered to be the official language of scholarly works and also religious observance up until the Protestant Reformation. The Roman Catholic services were all held in Latin and all of the texts were also written in the same. The Anglican Church changed this in order to be a real “Church of England” thus giving access to the texts to the common man. To have a language used for official texts of religion and scholarly work, can only but increase its prestige. “The translation of the Bible into English, moreover, and the changeover from Latin to English in church services, raised the prestige of English.” (Barber, 2000:176).

            The prestige of English was only assisted by the arguments on a scholarly level about the new religion as the arguments were not confined to the scholars but needed to be disseminated amongst the people. This resulted in even the scholarly arguments being written and published in English. The change in the use of language in this instance was in order to reach the largest audience (Barber, 2000:176). As a result it can only be seen that other scholarly arguments would get the same treatment in order to reach their maximum audiences as well. Thus Latin was in effect beaten by popularity and the necessity to increase the readership.

Conclusion

            Bibles are a most useful tool for the researcher in order to track the changes in language over a period of time as long as care is taken with their use. In the history of Elizabethan English their significance is even greater as they were one of the greatest weapons for promoting the new religion, and by a result the prestige of English as a language. English emerged from the sixteenth century as a force to be reckoned with displacing Latin in various areas, and this is of significance

            Only through the impact of religion and the resulting expectations of people being able to read their own native tongue could the language have had such an impact. It can clearly be seen that before this revolution the core texts were written in Latin and thus gave very restricted access. With the requirement to disseminate the information to as much of the people as possible in order that the struggle became popular, the change to the vernacular language of the people could only but impact the language, increasing its prestige and also reduce that of the classical languages. Thus it can be seen that the impact of religion upon Elizabethan English is a part of its history that cannot be ignored, but needs to be taken into account in order to see other elements of historical significance.

Bibliography

Barber, C. (2000) The English Language: A Historical Introduction, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Crystal, D. (2003) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2^nd ed), Cambridge University Press, New York, USA

McCrum, R. (2010) Globish: How the English Language Became the World’s Language, Penguin Group (Australia), Camberwell, Australia

Smith, J. (2005) Essentials of Early English, Routledge, New York, USA

An Introductory History of Elizabethan English

Greetings,

The following forms one part of "A Short History of Elizabethan English" which I am in the process of writing. What will follow here, and in the following posts will be the articlised versions of the chapters of this history. Each is designed to be succinct on its own in order that the entire thing does not have to be posted which would make for a very long blog, however each does join with one another in order to complete the entire history. An important note, these are aimed at the historical aspects of the language rather than the technical ones, as this will come later on.

Cheers,

Henry.

Introduction

            Before delving into the specifics of various elements of the history of Elizabethan English, it is useful to look at the subject overall in order to examine the history of the language in a more general manner. This gives the chance to see generalised patterns in the history of the language before examining specific aspects of the language and will give some direction in which the discussion will proceed. This discussion is best made on general terms in order to get a feeling for the history of the language rather than being concerned with specifics.

            The first part of the history is to look at the development of the language toward Early Modern English (EModE) and thus toward Elizabethan English. This examination needs to go backward somewhat in order to achieve the best view of what is present in this developmental history. The tracking of this history is important as it will demonstrate the importance of EModE to the modern language.

            Every language has influences which are placed upon it from within and from without. From within the language it is most useful to examine the most prolific and influential authors and text. Then to look to the external it is useful to see what the language is based upon. This leads to the following part on the rise of the language.

            In the early part of its history English was considered to be a juvenile language, lacking in the sophistication of older ones such as Latin. This part of the history tracks the rise of English from juvenile language to one which is accepted for important works. The Reformation figures as important in this process.

            Finally is an examination of Elizabethan English. The first part of this is an examination of Elizabethan English as a part of EModE. Next is to examine the impact of the language on the period and indeed the period on the language. This all culminates in the development of the language toward the modern language.

            The information presented is more of an introduction to the history of Elizabethan English more than anything else. While there are specifics which will be noted and pointed out there is still room for investigation present. With an overall picture of the language and how it developed through history it is then possible to examine various elements of this development in more detail.

Developmental History

            The history of a language needs to be studied like any other phenomenon through the collection of data. Indeed in the case of language it can be the smallest details which can be the most significant. “The study of the English language relies on an accumulation of tiny details” (Crystal, 2010:8). This is a study of a historical process in which people learn how to communicate with one another, thus it is an important phenomenon worth studying. The important thing is that it is this process is a developmental one starting in one form and moving to another, and just as with many other historical phenomena there are not clearly defined parts of the development. “Language change is no different from other historical developments in that it does not proceed in stages but rather by overlaps.” (Nevalainen, 2006:3).

            With language as with other phenomena it is the interactions which are the most significant and present changes in the language over time. With regard to this language changes as a result of these interactions and changes form, “thus the changing forms of a particular language through time are the result of their interaction with that language’s functions.” (Mugglestone, 2006:120). This demonstrates changes within the language over time due to interaction with itself and also external influences. As far as a developmental history of Early Modern English the transition from Middle English to Early Modern English was one of elaboration (Mugglestone, 2006:122), meaning that the real change from one to the other was an increase in complexity. What is also important with regard to this and highlights the overlapping nature of the development is that it happened over time.

“it took some 400 years before a ‘standard English’ evolved – a variety of English in which educated people all came to use the same rules of grammar, spelling and punctuation.” (Crystal, 2010:8)

            In fact there is no real “standard” form of EModE as it was in a state of flux and development over its entire history. It is only after this period that there is any real standardisation of the language which was commonly adhered to. However it was through this flux and development that the modern language was allowed to form, indeed as a result of the combination of both instability in the language and the resulting development in EModE that the modern language gained many of the features which it now contains (Mugglestone, 2006:149). The developmental period of EModE through the four hundred year period allowed for developments in the language including an increase in vocabulary through self-development and borrowing of words, which was one of the more significant developments.

“the Early Modern English period is marked by an unprecedented lexical growth. It is achieved both by extensive borrowing from other languages and by exploiting native resources by means of word-formation.” (Lass, 1999:332)

Influences on the Language

“All textbooks on the history of English agree that the two most important influences on the development of the Renaissance are the works of William Shakespeare (1564 – 1616) and the King James Bible of 1611” (Crystal, 2003:62)

            Every language has influences which are placed upon it. Some of these are internal influences and some of these are external influences. In the case of English and its development through the Renaissance period, it had both, though it could be argued that it was the internal influences which made the greatest impact upon the language.

Shakespeare, as mentioned above, had a great impact upon the language and is recognised for his achievements in this area. It could even be argued that without the influence of Shakespeare the language would not have turned out the way that it did. “The Shakespearean impact on the language was chiefly in the area of the lexicon,” (Crystal, 2003:62). In this particular area Shakespeare coined or at least recorded in the vicinity of two thousand new words. While this is often recognised as one of his greatest areas of impact upon the language, he was also a great manipulator of the language and many idioms used in the modern language are credited to him even though people use them without recognising them (Crystal, 2003:63). As far as individuals are concerned there was no real other author which had so much impact upon the language at the time.

The English language in the Renaissance period was in a state of flux changing in mode of expression and rules. At this stage the language was not recognised as able to stand on its own, nor was it recognised as a language of learning, that was the area of the classic languages, Latin and Greek. Both had an influence on the language and how it would develop, “one result of this Latin influence on English was the introduction of a large number of Latin loan-words into the language.” (Barber, 2000:177). However the control of the classical languages and the subjugation of English would not to last for long.

Rise of English

            The classical languages are those which were studied in schools and more to the point at universities, the recognised seats of learning and it was due to this that they had a hold over what language was suitable. The English language criticised as not suitable for learning better done in Greek or Latin (Crystal, 2003:60). For the most part, it can be argued, was that all of the classical authors were written in either Latin or Greek and that English was a relative newcomer to the scene without clear establishment. However as arguments of a religious and intellectual nature began to involve more than those learned individuals, English began to take hold and assert itself.

“In the defeat of Latin and the final establishment of English as the sole literary medium in England, a considerable part was played by the religious disputes that raged from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century. During the Reformation, people engaged in controversy wanted to be read by as large a public as possible.” (Barber, 2000:175)

            The revolution in learning began as early as the Tudors and as this spread so people wanted to know more and be involved more in learning and things associated with learning. The Reformation provided a spark of interest to the situation and encouraged more people to read, and thus be informed. The only real way to do this was to write in English, thus much was written in English in order to reach largest audience especially in regard to religious matters (Barber, 2000:176). This took the place of the classical languages indeed as more people learnt the language more was changed from classical languages into the vernacular. One of the biggest steps with regard to this revolution was the writing of the Bible in English, “The translation of the Bible into English, moreover, and the changeover from Latin to English in church services, raised the prestige of English.” (Barber, 2000:176). The fact that a fundamental religious text was translated into English demonstrated the prestige of the language and this was only to reinforce the position of the language. This was only the beginning of the process.

            The Bible was one of the first texts to be translated into English so that more people could read it. However it would not be the last. Some of this was due to the influence of the up and rising merchant class, often of whom did not know the classical languages but still wanted access to the new learning that was coming about in the Renaissance period, thus, “the rise of social and occupational groups which had little or no Latin, but which were eager to read and learn, and wanted books in English.” (Barber, 2000:176). This increased the popularity of the language for reading intellectual matters and new discoveries.

The Reformation and the changes in religion only served to fuel the fire of passion for learning in order that people were able to keep up with the movements in religious thought and argument. Thus more and more was written of an intellectual nature in English rather than the classical languages. This was a popular struggle not only for the new religion but also for the language of the nation. As more and more was written in English so the language gained power and recognition. “By the end of the 16^th century, the matter was resolved. English became the language of learning.” (Crystal, 2003:61). A victory over the classical languages, though they still retained some of their influence.

Elizabethan English

“The story of English thus becomes more definite in the 16^th century, with more evidence available about the way the language was developing, both in the texts themselves, and in a growing number of observations dealing with such areas as grammar, vocabulary, writing system, and style. In that century scholars seriously got down to talking about their language.” (Crystal, 2003:56)

            The beginning of the real dominance of the English language over Latin and other classical languages can be seen in Elizabethan English. It was born out of a time in which the language was in flux but this was to be one of the great advantages of the language as it allowed it to grow and develop over time. The solidification in the language is found here where the language becomes something in and of itself. Rather than being supported by other languages, elements of other languages are used to enhance the language. “In the Elizabethan period the English language flexes its muscles. It begins to experiment, to play around, to show off.” (Gooden, 2009:75). This makes for a very exciting sort of history to be examining. What is useful to note about all the developments here is that they reflected the social history of the time and were buoyed along by them. 

“there is a profound connection between this development [written standardization and lexical augmentation] and the historical and social developments of the sixteenth century in which vernacular literacy played so important a role: the English Reformation, and the rise of Elizabethan and Jacobean vernacular culture.” (Mugglestone, 2006:143)

            The importance of the vernacular language to the developments of the period has already been presented in part. In the Elizabethan period, this particular situation is only enhanced by the growing popularity of the language put in place by the need for more of the population to be able to read the arguments for themselves and support one side or another. The growth of the Church of England was a popular one and could have only gained such support by allowing more people to be able to read what was being written and as such writing it in English. In this way religion assists with popularisation of English due to religious texts printed in English, in plain language easy to read and understand (Gooden, 2009:78). This could only lead to developments in the language and more concern for its form and function as has been indicated above.

            This was the search for a language that people could express themselves in clearly and concisely and be heard by more and more of the population. This period of examination and codification by men such as John Hart and Richard Mulcaster saw a development toward a mature language. “The early modern period in England saw the first systematic attempts to create, or recreate, a universal language, a ‘perfect’ tongue.” (Mugglestone, 2006:212). This was the development which led to our modern language as it stands as it was only really cleaned up and assembled together in the following periods. True, there were still some areas which needed work, but the language itself, the core elements were developed in the Elizabethan period.

Conclusion

            What has been presented is an overall look at the history of Early Modern English with a focus on Elizabethan English. This overall picture allows for the discovery of overall trends in the history of the language in order to see how it developed in a very general manner. From this overall picture the specifics of the history of the language can be put into place and then examined to see how they fit into the overall picture, this gives the history of the language some perspective and reveals many of the factors which need to be taken into account.

            The first part of the investigation was to examine a developmental history of the language and put it in a historical picture. This took into account the development from Middle English to Early Modern English and how this development over the period of time allowed for changes in the language. Significantly, it was demonstrated that language acts much like any other historical phenomenon moving in leaps and bounds with connections between what has come before and what came afterward. What this development also demonstrated was the unstable nature of the language at the time.

            The influences on a language come both from internal and external sources which is significant. In the case of EModE, some of the most marked influences can be laid at the feet of a single author from the later part of the history of the language, William Shakespeare. This not to say that he was the only one who had an influence, it is just he had a great influence on the language, more than most. From external sources it was the classical languages and mostly Latin which had the most influence on the language. Markers of this can be still found in the current language.

            English had to crawl up and defeat the influence of the classical languages in order to exert its influence and establish its dominance. The rise of English as a language of learning and study took a popular uprising and call for more to be written in the language. One of the most significant steps in this process was the translation of the Bible into English. As the writers of the Reformation found that in order to reach the greatest number of people, English was the best language to write in, English as a language began and continued to exert dominance and eventually displace the classical languages. This achievement could not have come about without the fluid nature of the language and also the social history of the period.

            Elizabethan English only covers a very small portion of EModE; indeed it only covers about fifty years or an eighth of the period which the language covers. However, it is significant as it was during this period that some of the most exciting developments of the language took place, and also in this time which English began to exert influence as a mature and developed language. Many of the greatest advances made for the language were made in this period and thus marks it as significant. However, it should not be studied in isolation but placed in the background of the development of the language which took place before it to reveal the changes made in this period.

Bibliography

Barber, C. (2000) The English Language: A Historical Introduction, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Crystal, D. (2003) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2^nd ed), Cambridge University Press, New York, USA

Crystal, D. (2010) Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices, The British Library, London, UK

Gooden, P. (2009) The Story of English: How the English Language Conquered the World, Quercus Publishing Plc, London, UK

Lass, R. (ed.)(1999) The Cambridge History of the English Language: Volume III: 1476 – 1776, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Mugglestone, L. (ed) (2006) The Oxford History of English, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK

Nevalainen, T. (2006) An Introduction to Early Modern English, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland

Introduction to the Study of Elizabethan English

Introduction

            Elizabethan English is a part of Early Modern English and what follows is an introduction to the study of these languages, with a focus on Elizabethan English. This study is with the future in mind of reproducing the language in a written format. The fact that a written format has been specified is important as there will be very little if no discussion on those subjects which are associated with vocal considerations, such as pronunciation. The idea of the research is to seek the true language at its core without the external influences of modern language practices. However, in order to study the language such influences need to be taken into account.

            The language needs to be studied as it was in its essence. This means that it needs to be studied and appreciated without judging the language on the basis of modern norms of language such as a spelling, punctuation and grammar. These influences are the prime ones which will affect the study of the language and while they need to be accepted as important and significant, it is the core language which is sought. In order to achieve this real focus is needed.

            The focus will be on Elizabethan English; this is not Early Modern English as this is a much broader subject covering a much broader period (c.1400 – 1800). Elizabethan English forms a part of this period and as such some of the reference will be more general, especially where specific references are not available. As stated, the focus is primarily on Elizabethan English, or to be more precise the English of the reign of Elizabeth I (1558 -1603). The language was flexible and this needs to be noted in order to truly appreciate it, so to will parts of the research. While this is an introduction and uses secondary materials, in order to truly understand the language the research must come from primary materials. This allows for the least interference in the study. Secondary sources will be used to support the research in those areas of language technicalities in order to appreciate the rules of the language.

            For the purposes of the following discussion, there will be a three parts. The first part of this discussion will be modern considerations and evidences this presents the sort of evidence which is available for the researcher and also deals with some of the considerations which need to be made in such research. The second part will follow with an examination of the evidence from the period which is being researched in order to find the most useful parts of it. This will also examine how authors of the period which have come through to the modern can be used as useful resources. Finally will be a discussion of the language in general with a focus on those issues which are present in the language itself. These need to be considered especially considering the changes over time in the language.

Bibliographic Note

            For the most part, the references for this investigation of the language will come from a single author with others in support. The author whose work will be the primary focus of the investigation is David Crystal. This would seem to limit the research and possibly only give it a single point of view, however, after reading the information present from this and other authors, the approach given by Crystal in his various texts is the most supported. The other material available either repeats or reinforces the theory and information presented by Crystal in his various works. Further information about this author can be found at http://www.davidcrystal.com/.

Considerations of the Modern Era

“Most of Early Modern English is the same as Modern English.” (Crystal, 2008:230). The important word here is “most” as there are important differences which must be highlighted in order to understand the language as it was in the period in which it was created and used, using modern norms of language results in a slanted view of the language and an inaccurate appreciation of the language. This particular aspect is even so true in the discussion of rules by which the language should be understood.

“it took some 400 years before a ‘standard English’ evolved – a variety of English in which educated people all came to use the same rules of grammar, spelling and punctuation.” (Crystal, 2010:8)

            This four-hundred year period existed from about 1400 to about 1800, or to give a more literary approach from the time of Chaucer until about the time of the writing of the first real recognised dictionary by Johnson. Shakespeare is found in the middle of this period in a time where the language was in its most tumultuous time of change. This is one of the things that make studying the language of this period so interesting.

            What needs to be noted by the investigator of the language is that there were different varieties of Early Modern English (EModE) depending on subject, audience and speaker, this is actually similar to today, the language is dependent on the situation in which it is used (Crystal, 2008:221). Evidence for this can be found in comparing the language used on the street in comparison to that used in the courts. While Present Day English (PDE) is more homogeneous, it still carries some important differences depending on the audience and the speaker. The advantage that is present in the study of language in this particular instance can be found in the written language.

“scripts can be called ideographic … since they are not subject to sound change, they can remain stable over a long period of time and thus permit readers to understand older texts (in principle).” (Görlach, 1997:33)

            This is an advantage of the type of script that was used to write the language in the period. Unlike Asian scripts which are pictographic, and thus a single character can mean a variety of things, most western scripts are ideographic meaning that they mean the same thing regardless of where or when they were printed. Thus there is a less likelihood of misinterpretation when it comes to the script and thus reduces the likelihood of misinterpretation.

Linguistic Detail

“in Shakespeare’s plays, especially after about 1600, the life of the piece, of the whole business of personation, is in large part not in the gesture but in linguistic detail;” (Kermode, 2000:6)

            The period being studied here is, as stated, the period of Elizabeth I’s reign, as such 1600 is on the later edge of the period, but the highlighting of linguistic detail applies very much to the language of the period in general. The language of the period was specific to the purpose it was designed for. It is these linguistic details that must not get lost in order to more completely understand the language. “The study of the English language relies on an accumulation of tiny details” (Crystal, 2010:8).

            It is not appropriate to approach the study of Elizabethan English with the broad strokes which can be made of the modern language as the rules were very much in flux at the time. This allowed for a great deal of malleability in the language and much more movement for authors to express themselves in. Details must be found and examined in and of themselves in order to understand the language.

Sources

            For a complete understanding of the language, authors are required from different parts of the period in order to properly understand the language and appreciate all its elements (Nevalainen, 2006:13). This is in order to completely cover the period and thus gain a much better idea about how and where the language changed and also did not change. It is also important that different types of sources are used both verse and prose in order to completely understand the language. This becomes even more important when it is realised that the two had separation between them, “the trade of the dramatic poet was different and increasingly remote from the conventional, bookish rhetorical display.” (Kermode, 2000:10). The authors of the day would write to what was required of them, much as is done today.

            With regard to the sources chosen for research, it is, as always, important to access those sources which are as close to the originals as possible in order to gain the greatest understanding of the language. Many books have been facsimiled and placed in the public for access, this is a great boon to the study of the language, however the authenticity of such documents must be examined especially where they have been changed for ease of reading. Transliteration is less useful as some meaning is lost in the “modernisation” of the text in the process. (Görlach, 1997:34). The only way to ensure that the document is as it was is to use a facsimile of the original document, unchanged, or as close to the original as possible.

Dictionaries

            Dictionaries are a most useful resource for the study of language as they present words in a format in which they can be understood and thus used. Dictionaries have even been produced for the understanding of previous and foreign languages, however they are not infallible. “All dictionaries should be regularly revised, to take account of new findings and methods,” (Crystal and Crystal, 2002: vii). Updates of language happen even in the modern period and with research into previous forms of English the same needs to be made of those languages and thus the dictionaries which are available.

            Further, the inclusion of one word or another must be considered. Just as with any document it is up to the author to decide wether or not something is included in the document, the same can be said for dictionaries. “It is, one must always remember, a matter of judgement. Lexicographers are as human and as creative as anyone else” (Crystal and Crystal, 2002: vii). This is not to say that such resources are useless it is merely to say that consideration needs to be made by the researcher as to the approach taken by the author and care taken. Such resources should be used to supplement the research and findings of the researcher. Of course the best kind of resource for the investigator is after all the one which is produced through their own work and understanding and thus gains them the greatest insight.

“a dictionary is not a substitute for editorial notes, which focus on extracting the full meaning of a word in its individual context, … they [dictionaries] attempt to make generalizations about the meaning of words.” (Crystal and Crystal, 2002: vii)

Learning Words

            Past languages are foreign languages, even if this is not recognised by some. The language is different in many different ways and needs to be taken note of in the research. Just as with any foreign language the words need to be learnt in a similar fashion (Crystal, 2008:152). This means that there needs to be some focus in the process in order to completely understand the language.

            For the most part people will only come across languages of the past in the investigation of some other subject. This results in a haphazard approach to learning the language and only gaining enough understanding for what is required at the time. With such limited, spaced learning it is difficult to build up intuition about “normal” vocabulary of EModE (Crystal, 2008:152), or any language for that matter. The investigation of the language must be approached as with any project with completeness.

            Writing down a word and then investigating it later takes the word out of context in much the same way that an artefact removed from the presence of others destroys some of its meaning. It is better to discover a word and then investigate it as it is found in order to retain its contextual situation (Crystal, 2008:153). This enables the researcher to gain a much more complete understanding of the word than if it is taken out of its context. Indeed the other words around such words assist in the understanding of the word, thus the context assists with the understanding of the word. The associations between words assist with their comprehension such things as antonymy, synonymy, and collocation or specific associations between words (Crystal, 2008:154). The words really need to be learnt and understood individually and in association with other words in order for a complete understanding of the word and thus the language as a whole.

Evidence for Past Languages

            The first place an investigator needs to look with regard to any piece of research is the evidence which has been left behind. In the case of Early Modern English, and by default, Elizabethan English there is a large amount of printed material which can be useful. This is even taking into account those problems which can be encountered mentioned above. With regard to this it is most useful to examine the reason for what has been left for the researcher, and how this can be used to increase understanding.

Printed Material

            For most modern languages there is a large amount of printed material and even hand-written material which is useful to the researcher. However as the language gets older the presence of certain materials begins to wane as much of it is perishable, this is the reason that the most ancient languages are studied from stone inscriptions as parchments often did not survive. In the case of the English of the sixteenth century, printed material forms only a small part of what would have been written as the printing press was still relatively new. Domestic news was passed by word of mouth or by private letter quicker than could be printed in sixteenth century (Nevalainen, 2006:20). So much of this information is not available to us. However much can be gained from what has been left behind.

“Students of Shakespeare’s language need to be aware of the layers of uncertainty surrounding the texts we have available, and understand the bibliographic variables involved,” (Crystal, 2008:40)

            Shakespeare is one of, if not the most, prolific and recognised writers of the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. This makes his works useful in examining the language of the period. However, as stated above there are issues which need to be contended with and these applying not only to Shakespeare but any document of the period? As soon as a document passes from on person to another and is reproduced there is the chance of change in the text, and this can come from the actual printing of the document, not only the spelling and grammar of the printer but typesetting and letter form also changes spelling of words (Crystal, 2008:34). These are issues which need to be taken into account.

Bibles

“Because they [bibles] are all translations of the same core set of texts, the different versions can throw special light on changes in orthography, grammar and vocabulary throughout the period.” (Crystal, 2003:59)

 

            One of the best places to gain information about languages is from documents which have a recognised core text. Bibles are a perfect example of this and the prevalence of bibles from the sixteenth century allows the researcher to examine the changes in language through this medium. This makes them a great resource for the period with regard to the language of the period. However, even with these documents the researcher has to approach a particular document with care in order that his research is not deviated by a particular form in a particular text.

“they [bibles] display great variation, not only in theological slant and stylistic level, but also in typography, presentation, editorial matter, and mode of presentation.” (Crystal, 2003:59)

Shakespeare as a Tool

            One of the greatest tools, aside from the bibles mentioned above, which has been passed down from the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries are the works of Shakespeare. Even taking into account the variations and problems mentioned above they allow the researcher access to the language in a positive way. However the language and Shakespeare need to be studied together not separate from one another, “we should study Early Modern English alongside and through the medium of Shakespeare.” (Crystal, 2008:231).

            Shakespeare’s works are an example of Early Modern English and thus allow an examination of the language, but also allow an examination of the author as well and both of these aspects need to be taken into account for the full appreciation of the works. Even for the researcher of the language in general, as is more of the focus of this investigation, Shakespeare’s works allow for an insight into a single author but several approaches to the language and how it was used. Shakespeare’s gift is to demonstrate how the language can be manipulated for a purpose (Crystal, 2008:232). The manipulation of the language demonstrates changes in the language which are most useful, but also demonstrate where the language was stable which is even more useful in creating an idea of the norms of the language.

            It is the norms of the language which form its core principles and allow for the understanding of the language. These are places where the language is common across different documents and authors, and even within an author. Shakespeare was a great manipulator of the language but he also demonstrated where the language had stabilised and both of these are essential for the complete understanding of any language. “The more we understand the linguistic norms of his [Shakespeare’s] age, the more we will be able to appreciate his departures from these norms;” (Crystal, 2008:230). With the evidence examined and an examination of the issues which are present in the study of the language it is now possible to begin to appreciate the language as it was.

Elizabethan English

            With considerations made of approach and the evidence presented it is then possible to begin to look at examining the target of the research, Elizabethan English. There are things that the researcher needs to be aware of before diving headlong into this sort of research. As much as the language is in its whole English, it is still to a degree foreign, this is because the past is a foreign country and thus the language is also foreign and this will result in language difficulties.

            Language changes over time and quite dramatically, often unnoticed by those who are speaking the language. The most evident place for this in the modern world is in the area of slang. How this relates to the study of a previous version of a current language is to acknowledge the changes that have taken place between then and now. On a more focussed example, words individually and used together also need to be considered; as the words used are a reflection of the language as a whole, no more important with regard to this is in the consideration of the changes in meaning over time.

Language Difficulty

“We also need to remember how quickly the language of quite ordinary people grows strange, recedes into the past, along with other social practices and assumptions taken for granted in one age yet hard for a later age to understand.” (Kermode, 2000:4)

            There are many expressions which were used in the past which will be unfamiliar to those of the present. This can even happen with the relatively recent past. When discussing a language which was current centuries ago the importance of this can not be emphasised enough, and this will result in difficulties for the researcher, “the language can admittedly be difficult, even baffling.” (Kermode, 2000:4). Evidence for this can be found when a student at school comes across Shakespeare for the first time and the questions about the language which eventuate.

            Parts of Elizabethan English will be familiar and other parts will not be so familiar. In order to begin to understand the language it is useful to look at the areas in which the language is familiar in order to understand those parts which are less comprehensible. What needs to be noticed with regard to this is that these areas of confusion will often be in clusters, these clusters result in variability of comprehension, resulting in patches of difficulty (Crystal, 2008:165). It is these patches of difficulty which emphasise the difference between what is in this and what is in the present language. People will become focussed on these patches of difficulty without considering their context and it is here where help can be found in understanding what is meant. Read the entirety of a speech or passage before worrying about difficulty in part of it (Crystal, 2008:177). This will also assist in the understanding of individual words which may be causing difficulty.

Consideration of Words

            In the examination of a language, individual words need to be considered. They need to be considered on their own, but also in relation to other words. Glossaries are assembled to take into account words and their meanings in order to make it easier for the researcher. These glossaries focus on difficult and different words, some are words which are now unused and others are simply the same words with different meanings, difficult and different are not the same (Crystal, 2008:146).

            There are several different categories of words, easy, difficult and different being the primary ones. Easy words are still used today in special context, or very familiar for example oft, perchance, and morrow (Crystal, 2008:147). These words do not tend to find their way into glossaries due to their familiarity and use even in the modern language, however they should not be ignored as they may be used differently. This aspect of the language will be considered further along.

“‘difficult’, either because it was an Elizabethan usage no longer current or because it would pose a problem to a modern readership despite its continued currency.” (Crystal and Crystal, 2002: viii)

 

            Difficult words tend to be the focus as they cause the most problems for researchers and readers of the texts. It is significant that whether a word is considered difficult or not is up to the author of the glossary, and thus words may be added or left out depending on the experience and knowledge of the author.

Background is also significant with regard to the words themselves as understanding them may require experience in other fields of endeavour. Some words are “difficult” due to previous knowledge required such as classical study or different language (Crystal, 2008:147). These are often words which have been brought into the language from others or from ancient or classical sources. For the most part without some idea of their origin, figuring these words out can be difficult for the researcher and it is this which determines the difference between “difficult” and “different”. Difficult are for “words where it is not possible to deduce from their form what they might mean” (Crystal, 2008:152), whereas different words are usually those which have taken on a different meaning in the modern language or used in a different way than expected.

Usage

The way in which words are used is significant in a language as the meaning and understanding of a word can change significantly depending on how an author uses a particular word. This is even more important when examining Elizabethan English as the authors were less constrained in their use of words in comparison to later periods.

“When we study Shakespeare’s vocabulary, it is important to recognize that his period of the language – as all other periods – is not linguistically homogeneous.” (Crystal, 2008:159)

            This lack of a homogeneous language can make things difficult for the researcher to understand exactly what is being meant and how the word is being used. However, it is also due to this that there is so much flexibility in the language. This allowed Shakespeare to experiment with the language in order to achieve their desired end. Words would be converted from nouns to verbs in a process called conversion (Crystal, 2008:148), thus their usage could be completely changed. This is only a simple example of the different usage in words for the language being discussed. How words are used is at the discretion of the author and this is significant, however this can create difficulties as has been noted, indeed some of the words have even had extra syllables added for the verse, though the meaning is kept (Crystal, 2008:150). This changes the pronunciation of the word and can significantly affect it even if the word’s meaning is not changed. Changes in meaning over time are also significant. The researcher cannot assume that a word means the same as it does now.

Meaning

            The meaning of words is their purpose, as we use language to create understanding through the expression of meaning. Problems occur when the understanding is lost often due to a different meaning of a word. This can only exacerbated by the author and reader being separated by an expanse of time as the modern researcher is separated from those authors of the Elizabethan period.

            Even simple words can change meaning over time and develop their own meaning which is different from an earlier one (Crystal and Crystal, 2002: viii). This is a problem which the researcher needs to be acutely aware of in the examination of a previous language. Words can seem very familiar, but can have different meaning due to a change over time these words are often termed false friends (faux amis) where the modern meaning different from the period meaning, these are familiar words which actually are not in this the context of the word is important for its definition (Crystal, 2008:156).

The context allows the researcher to see how the word is being used and thus assists in creating understanding of the word. The researcher needs to see the words as the author did and in the same context in order to really understand what the author was attempting to convey. Words which have come through to the modern language which have developed new meanings are the prime example of where the researcher needs to be careful with regard to this. Perspective is important, much of Shakespeare’s language is very similar if not the same as modern (Crystal, 2008:175).

            There are examples of this which can be made in order to demonstrate the changes in the meaning of a word over time. To begin with “blot”, often used in the modern language to present a mistake made by a person whereas in Early Modern English “blot” was to make a correction or erasure (Crystal, 2008:34), thus correct a mistake rather than make one. This is a very subtle change in the language which results in a difference in meaning. Politician comes from politic which meant “shrewd” and then gradually developed a double-meaning as “crafty”, thus the word develops as two-faced describing a political office but also as “schemer” (Gooden, 2009:78). This presents a short timeline from one meaning to another demonstrating the changes in the meaning of the word over time. In order to understand a language as it was, it must be put in context.

Conclusion

            The language of the Elizabethan period holds many familiar elements which each reader will recognise, however it also has many elements which are not familiar to many, and it is the balance between these which is important. Assumptions must not be made about elements of the language should not be made without evidence to support them and it is here that the investigation into the language begins. The context of the language is important and assumptions must not be made about how the language may work or the meanings of words without evidence to support these findings. In some ways the familiar elements of the language can lead the researcher into traps with regard to meaning and how the language works and this is something in which care must be taken.

            In order to discover the elements of a language and how the work they must be seen first in their original context in order to understand them properly as they were. This means that the primary material for research and examination of the language should be from the period which is being studied. Secondary sources about the technical aspects of the language are useful and can assist the researcher greatly, but it is only through reading the language of the period that an understanding of the flow and tempo of the language can be appreciated. This process will also allow for the familiar and the different parts of the language to make themselves known to the researcher in order that a greater appreciation can be made of the language.

            There are considerations that must be made before research is begun as each has its own impact upon the research. One of the things that must first be established is an appreciation of the language as it was, and not in comparison to the current language. The differences based upon rules which may or may not apply are some of the aspects which give the language its richness and allow the researcher an appreciation of what the language was. The language must be learnt and appreciated as it was, and as such learnt like any unfamiliar language. The way in which the language is approached will colour the investigation.

            In the search for evidence of a language the best place to go for this is the source. In the case of languages such as Early Modern English, this means written texts the best place for this is from primary ones. Primary sources give the researcher a direct door into the language to see it as it was originally presented without any interpretation, and this is where the researcher must be careful. There are many sources which will claim to be direct copies of the originals, but even minor changes in order to make the language more readable can have an impact on the language, especially with regard to spelling and punctuation.

Secondary sources from recognised authors on the language are useful in that they give some insight into the language from a more technical point of view. This is useful as they describe how the language works, however in using a secondary version of an original text the researcher must be careful as the form of the language may have changed, and thus the meaning also. These may be used in order to gain some of the feel of the language but should not be relied upon. Just as dictionaries are used as a tool so too should other secondary sources be used in the same fashion. Secondary sources should be used to confirm or assist the investigation of the language, hence their use here.

Languages change over time and this is one of the exciting things about them. Seeing changes in language demonstrates a change in the understanding of how things work. Following these changes through a language can gain the researcher a deeper understanding of their own language in the process. In the case of the study of Elizabethan English, as is the case of all languages, words are only the beginning. Individual words must be placed into context in order to gain their full meaning and a real understanding of the language, thus punctuation and even the form of the text are important. This is the reason that dictionaries and lexicons only form one part of understanding a language as words will have different meanings depending on their circumstances, and thus to understand the language it must be appreciated in its entirety.

Elizabethan English forms only a small section of the subject which is Early Modern English and thus the investigation of this language needs to be focussed, but also must take into account the elements on a larger scale. In order to appreciate the language of the period being discussed, only the sources from that period should be used. For primary sources this is relatively easy, for secondary ones dealing with the technical aspects of the language this is more difficult. This is the reason why aspects of the overall language need to be taken into account, especially to fill in those aspects which otherwise may not be taken into account. However with careful use of these sources and an understanding of where the language fits into the overall picture a real feeling for the language and understanding can be made.

Bibliography

Crystal, D. (2003) The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language (2^nd ed), Cambridge University Press, New York, USA

Crystal, D. (2008) ‘Think on my Words’: Exploring Shakespeare’s Language, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK

Crystal, D. (2010) Evolving English: One Language, Many Voices, The British Library, London, UK

Crystal, D. and Crystal, B. (2002) Shakespeare’s Words: A Glossary and Language Companion, Penguin Books, London, UK

Gooden, P. (2009) The Story of English: How the English Language Conquered the World, Quercus Publishing Plc, London, UK

Görlach, M. (1997) The Linguistic History of English, Macmillan Press Ltd, London, UK

Kermode, F. (2000) Shakespeare’s Language, Penguin Books Ltd, London UK

Nevalainen, T. (2006) An Introduction to Early Modern English, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland