Introduction
Orthography
is more than just spelling, but it is often recognised as the most significant
part of the concept. As a result most of this investigation will focus on the
spelling element of orthography. This discussion will relate back to the
alphabet of the language as the orthography describes the use of the language.
The use of the alphabet is important to the formation of words especially with
regard to phonetics and pronunciation. As a result of orthography’s
relationship to the alphabet the result is that some of the discoveries found
in the alphabet will re-emerge in the discussion of orthography.
Again the
subject of printers will emerge as they present the highest volume
representation of the language which is accessible. Indeed most of the spelling
examples which are available to the reader and researcher in the current period
come from printed works as hand-written ones are rare and often inaccessible.
The printers will present an effect which was both positive and negative in
effect, while their printed word established a standard for spelling; they also
changed spellings to suit themselves.
The
discussion will proceed with a general overview of the subject of orthography
and then proceed to look at the important impact of the Great Vowel Shift which
altered pronunciation and as a result spelling as well. This will be followed
by a more in-depth investigation of spelling and the various aspects of this
which need to be taken into account. The final part of the discussion will
examine what has already been hinted at, the impact of printers and typesetting
on spelling.
General
What is orthography? Orthography
is “practically synonymous with spelling, but refers more especially to the
system as a whole” (Lass, 1999:33). Orthography also refers to the way in which
words are formed and how this relates to issues such as phonetics and
pronunciation. For the most part in this discussion it will be more focussed on
spelling.
In the Early Modern Period there
were two standards of orthography, a standard for scribes and professionals,
second for private correspondence affected by local dialect or regional
orthography (Lass, 1999:15). What this meant was that there were two different,
at least, sets of spellings of words in the period. With little surprise this
was bound to cause issues, especially with the spelling being so closely
related to the pronunciation of words. In this all manner of variations had to
be considered.
“Towards the end of the sixteenth
century, the problem of the orthographical representation of variations of
pronunciations became an even more important topic of discussion. Age, class
and region were recognised as potential sources of variation;” (Lass, 1999:17)
The
spelling of a word tells the reader how the word should be pronounced, thus
with different spellings there would be also different pronunciations. Indeed
the reverse could is also true, and this is where dialect is important. Each
dialect has its own idiosyncrasies which affect the pronunciation and spelling
of the language. Attempts were made in order to remove such idiosyncrasies, and
there is evidence of similar orthography present c.1570 and further along, but due
to various idiosyncrasies it failed to take hold, but attempt was made (Lass,
1999:26ff). This was evidence of the standardisation of the language, or at
least a beginning attempt at such a process. The attempt at standardisation
through orthography was influenced by a process which was already in the
process from the beginning of the Early Modern Period.
Great Vowel Shift
“Some scholars date the beginning
of the Early Modern English period from the effects of the Great Vowel Shift
(GVS), a series of sound changes affecting the quality of all Middle English
long vowels.” (Nevalainen, 2006:7)
Great Vowel Shift occurred in the
Middle English period and resulted in changes in the pronunciation and use of
vowels in the English language indeed converting more to a language of its own
rather than heavily based upon either French or Latin as it had been previously
influenced. The Elizabethan period was
toward the end of the Early Modern English period, meaning that this process
had for the most part been completed. The spelling of the Elizabethan period is
more reflected in the Modern English due to the completion of this process.
Thus much of what is found in Middle English seems to be foreign.
“Present-day English spelling
does not reflect the outcome of the sound change because the principles of spelling
conventions had largely been fixed before the chain shift was completed.”
(Nevalainen, 2006:7)
The Great
Vowel Shift is significant for the Elizabethan period in that it demonstrates
the willingness to use language and experiment with how it should sound for the
people of the period. This phenomenon also demonstrates the beginning of the
language establishing itself as significant and as a language in and of itself.
It could even be claimed that this shift was one of the prompts for the
examination and experimentation with the language.
Spelling
“it is true to say that most
people throughout much of the history of the English language have seemed
remarkably unconcerned about niceties of spelling” (Bryson, 2009:116)
The
Elizabethans were no exception in this particular instance. The spelling in the
Elizabethan period was a mess (Crystal, 2008:58). There were no real rules
established for correct spelling of words during the period and people more or
less spelt words as they felt they sounded. It is actually the pronunciation of
the words that became the key to establishing a standardised spelling, “we may
be pretty confident from spelling evidence or other descriptions that a
particular pronunciation was emerging or increasing in the period,”
(Mugglestone, 2006:154)
This
pronunciation is directly related to the dialect which is being spoken and
while it is a subject which fills an examination of its own, as a dialect
becomes more dominant in an area, and thus the pronunciation so too does the
spelling move in the same direction. One of the great pressures which assisted
this particular process was that of printing which was focussed, for the most
part in London, thus as the dialect of London dominates through printing so the
language becomes to become more regular.
“throughout the early modern
period, English is becoming more familiar to the modern eye, as spelling …
becomes more regular, encouraged by the commercial pressures accompanying the
introduction and spread of printing.” (Mugglestone, 2006:150)
The
important point here is that it is becoming more regular, the standardised
forms of spelling which we are so familiar with in Modern English were an
advent of a period beyond the Elizabethan. Even in the time of the great bard
Shakespeare, spelling still had not established itself in any form of standard.
In the period variations in spelling were something which were expected and
part and parcel of the way things were.
“there was no system of
standardized spelling at the time he [Shakespeare] was writing; the concept of
‘correct spelling’, with its associated social sanctions, did not clearly
emerge until the eighteenth century.” (Crystal, 2008:31)
What does
need to be noted is that even in the process of regularisation the variations
in spelling have not disappeared from the language by the end of the
Elizabethan period. Thus the idea of the ‘correct spelling’ of a word in the
Elizabethan, aside from a vaguely phonetic orientation is essentially absent.
While this is the case the words did begin to tend toward a standard and many words
of the period can be found which are spelt the same way as in the modern
language (Crystal, 2008:60).
The process
of change is something which has to occur for a reason and these reasons are
primarily influenced from within and from without, either separately or in
combination. In the case of Elizabethan English it was a combination of
influences from within and without which would affect the spelling of the words
in the language. Several factors influenced the spelling in Elizabethan
English: the influence of French on Old English (OE), continental printers
bring spellings with them, new foreign words introduced into the language,
pronunciation shift in spelling, and finally the influence of spelling
reformers (Crystal, 2008:58).
Some of
these factors have already been addressed previously, what needs to be noted is
that it is the combination of these influences which makes the result rather
than any one individual influence. Locally it was the influence of the
reformers attempts to formalise the language and also the printers which had
the greatest effect on the language.
“authoritative norms of spelling
in English only appear in the practices of printers in the sixteenth century,
alongside the writings of the orthoepists and spelling reformers such as Hart
and Cheke.” (Mugglestone, 2006:136)
With the
general ideas about spelling and its background addressed, it is possible to
address some of the specific spelling idiosyncrasies of the period. These
idiosyncrasies allow the reader to approach the language with some very general
rules to follow in the understanding of the language. Indeed it is useful to
look at the language in comparison to the modern. In reality there are five
processes which mark 80% of the difference between the languages: 1. Addition
of final “e” (againe); 2. Apostrophe used to replace letter “e” (arm’d); 3.
“ie” instead of “y” at end of word (busie); 4. Double instead of single
consonants; and 5. use of “ie” or “ee” for phonetic “ee” (neere) (Crystal,
2008:61). Each one of these differences can be related to either typesetting or
phonetic reasons. The double consonant had a purpose for being used.
“The usual way of marking a short
vowel was to double the following consonant … But a tendency had also emerged
to add a final e as well – thus
producing such forms as fitte, hadde, sette, and gette.”
(Crystal, 2008:60)
The
differences in spelling are related closely with how the alphabet is used and
thus the positions of letters in words resulting in differing spelling, even if
the different spelling has the same phonetic result. The additional “-e” which
appears on some words in Elizabethan texts had at least two reasons, “In EModE,
it became generally conventional to distinguish the historically long vowel by
adding –e,” (Smith, 2005:126). To present a long vowel is only one reason that
the addition was made, there was also a printer’s reason as well, the final
“–e” was added for justification of type or decoration (Smith, 2005:126). This
is an issue which will be addressed below. The other changes where letters
changed but not the phonetic spelling of the word are more and issue with the
alphabet rather than the actual spelling. For the most part “u” and “v”, and
“i” and “j” were interchangeable (Crystal, 2008:44). This affected the spelling
but not the pronunciation. Even in the spelling of personal names there is
variation present.
One of the
places where it would be expected that spelling would be an important factor is
in the name of the individual and their family. In actual cases in the
Elizabethan period this does not seem to be the case. In this instance Shakespeare
will be used as an example of this. “More than eighty spellings of
Shakespeare’s name have been found,” (Bryson, 2009:116). It could be considered
a little self-destructive to have so many different spellings of a name
especially if you are, or wanted to be a public figure as was the case with
Shakespeare. Even in the modern world attempting to determine the correct
spelling of a person’s name through their signature would be foolish.
“a person’s signature, whether he
be an Elizabethan playwright or a modern orthodontist, is about the least
reliable way of determining how he spells his name.” (Bryson, 2009:116)
However, in
this particular example it was not only in his signature that his name was
spelt in various different ways. The name also appeared differently in print
depending on who published it and the original source material. This reflects
the nature of spelling in the Elizabethan period being fundamentally
unestablished.
Elision, the removal of letter or
reduction in the spelling of a word was common in Shakespearean English, more
so than in Modern English. Most of these were quite common though there are
more unexpected ones also (Crystal and Crystal, 2002:146). Elision appears in
print and in hand-written documents and presents a blending of words together,
in the case of printers it would have been to save space, for the average
writer it would have served a similar purpose as well as reducing the amount
written, this shortening of words and blending using deletion common in period,
in some interesting variants (Lass, 1999:179). Elision is one of the examples
which can be seen where the hand-written and the printed used a technique in
order to save space, however the printers had more tools at their disposal to
achieve their end.
Printers and Typesetting
The
printing press and those who operated them had a surprisingly large effect upon
the spelling of words. It was through the printing press that documents became
public and as a result the printing press enabled spelling to become more uniform
(Bryson, 2009:118). This was because the spellings were put into the public eye
where they would be recognised and used as they were printed. It was not just
the printer’s spelling of words that changed things, the actual printing
process also had an effect, typesetting and letter form also changes spelling
of words (Crystal, 2008:34). In some instances this would change the spelling
of the word from the original as the author had written them, for the modern
researcher, this is something that has to be taken into account.
“Students of Shakespeare’s
language need to be aware of the layers of uncertainty surrounding the texts we
have available, and understand the bibliographic variables involved,” (Crystal,
2008:40)
In the case
of the printers themselves choices had to be made as to how the work was to be
presented, and thus there had to be considerations about the spelling of words
in the final print. Simply following the author’s spelling was one option, but
as there was so many variations in spelling at the time, a choice had to be
made about the spelling of words, ideographic, logographic or phonetic spelling
(Lass, 1999:16). This was further complicated in that most of the printers came
from other nations and thus English was not their first language, resulting in
spelling issues.
Even with
the issues present the fact that attempts were being made to formalise or at
least standardise the spelling of words is significant, “it appears that, in
general, printers of the later sixteenth century were making some attempts at
both regularity and consistency.” (Lass, 1999:27). This would inspire the
reformers at the same time to work on the standardisation of the language, not
just in spelling but also in grammar and punctuation. Even with these inspired individuals
it would still be a long time before the need or want of a standard spelling
would emerge. “In general, however, printers of the early sixteenth century
demonstrate little obvious interest in working towards a standard orthography.”
(Lass, 1999:25).
In the case
of printers it was more important for them to present the work well so that the
material would be saleable. For them it was more of a financial consideration
more than any consideration of correct spelling. This was even more important
for works such as plays which would have to be performed after being printed
and thus the spelling affected pronunciation and thus presentation, “The
‘correct’ relationship between the spoken and the written word was an issue
which occupied printers and grammarians alike;” (Lass, 1999:18).
Even with
the need for the presentation of the words correctly in order that they could
be pronounced and thus presented correctly, there was still a financial issue
which hovered over the printers’ heads, along with one of presentation. The
idea of full-justification so that all the ends of the lines lined up was one
which was an obsession of printers, this combined with the fact that such
measures would result in less paper used, thus making the work cheaper meant
that they developed space saving measures for typesetting (Crystal, 2008:53).
There are
many examples of these space-saving techniques, some which would have an effect
on spelling and others which would not. Some even appear in the modern
language, a perfect example of this is logograms, symbols standing for words,
“&” for and, &c for et cetera or for things which are assumed knowledge
(Crystal, 2008:55). While not so commonly used in normal texts they do appear
in the modern language. Assumed knowledge was an area in which the printers
identified as a place to save space in the printing and typesetting, thus
abbreviations were used for money and titles for example (Crystal, 2008:55).
While these did not have a great effect on spelling their presence is significant.
The effect of printers and their typesetting measures should not be
underestimated.
Conclusion
While the
focus of this investigation has been on spelling, it is important to remember
that orthography is much more than that. It is the formation of the words also
and this is based on phonetic principles due to the pronunciation of the words.
The result of this is that this discussion has focussed on several different
areas which affected the spelling of words in the Elizabethan period.
The Great
Vowel Shift marked the end of the Middle English period and the presentation of
Early Modern English. This is significant in that it describes how the language
began to be recognised for itself. This is significant for Elizabethan English
in that this process was well and truly complete by that period resulting in
the language being much more refined than it could have been, not complete but
more refined.
Spelling is
something which is very vague in the Elizabethan period and much of the
spelling was still up to the person who was writing at the time. There were
efforts made to standardise the language and some recognisable patterns which
can be used to better understand the language and its spelling. These form a
foundation for relating the language to our own where differences are present.
Even with these differences present there are many words which are spelt the
same as they are in the modern world.
The impact
of printers can be seen in both a positive and negative light. The printing of
the words enabled some standardisation of some spelling practices. However, the
printers themselves were not always so fluent in the language in order to
understand the effect that they had on the language. This resulted in some
spellings which were not so close to the original text as they might have been.
For the modern researcher, who is for the most part reliant on printed works,
this effect is something that needs to be taken into account in the study of
the language.
Spelling is
something that cannot be ignored in the study of a language regardless of its
age or its origin. The spelling of words is related to their pronunciation and
the formation of the words and thus is extremely significant. It is so closely
related to the alphabet which is used and how they are used that it is often
difficult to separate the two subjects. In the case of Elizabethan English
there are many good examples of the language present in many formats, and the
only real way to understand the formation of the words is to read them in as
close to their original format as possible.
Bibliography
Bryson, B. (2009) Mother
Tongue: The Story of the English Language, Penguin Books Ltd, London, UK
Crystal, D. (2008) ‘Think
on my Words’: Exploring Shakespeare’s Language, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK
Crystal, D. and Crystal, B. (2002) Shakespeare’s Words: A Glossary and Language Companion, Penguin
Books, London, UK
Lass, R. (ed.)(1999) The
Cambridge History of the English Language: Volume III: 1476 – 1776,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
Mugglestone, L. (ed) (2006) The Oxford History of English, Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK
Nevalainen, T. (2006) An Introduction to Early Modern
English, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, Scotland
Smith, J. (2005) Essentials
of Early English, Routledge, New York, USA
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