The subject of vocabulary would seem to be the next logical step in the progression and examination of the English of the Elizabethan period. Here follows the examination of this subject.
Introduction
The
vocabulary of a language determines how flexible and comprehensive the language
is. The enhancement of the language through vocabulary is something that the
Elizabethans were dedicated to and thus created, borrowed and even re-used
words in order to increase their vocabulary. This is a discussion which is
necessary in order to understand how the words were formed and where they came
from which will describe some of the influences on the language and thus how it
developed over time.
This
investigation will start with an overview of the vocabulary discussing the
changes in the language and also how the words may differ from our own. The aim
of this is to provide a general overview of the approach of Elizabethans to the
vocabulary and also make a small comparison to our own laying the foundation
for the following subjects. Glossaries discuss different and difficult words
the two must be defined so that the difference between the two types of words
can be clearly seen and understood, this is once again for the modern reader to
understand the Elizabethan’s language. These must also be compared to some of
their modern counter-parts for better understanding of the differences in
meanings.
With the
introduction for the modern researcher established it is then possible to
examine the vocabulary of the Elizabethans and where it came from. The first
place is to examine native words and how they came about as the formed the
foundation of the vocabulary. These were enhanced by new words created through
methods which will be described in some detail for a complete explanation. The
investigation of word formation presents the origins of the words and how the
vocabulary and the words changed.
Loan words
are those which come from other languages and were inserted into the language,
for the most part. Some were created within the language, but these are the
ones which were for the most part borrowed to fulfil particular roles. They
were not always popular and they did not always survive as will be
demonstrated. The introduction of words and the changes in the language also
resulted in some changes in meaning of words, this is especially important to
understand for the modern reader.
The
vocabulary of the language is what allows the users of the language to express
themselves. The words from the vocabulary are the building blocks of the
language and determine what people can describe and talk about. This is
important for the understanding of the language and the changes in the
vocabulary can have a marked change upon the language itself as changes in
vocabulary have demonstrated in the modern world.
Vocabulary Overview
The
vocabulary of a language determines what sort of things that the language can
express. For the most part the collection of the vocabulary of a language comes
from the creation of words or the borrowing of words from other languages.
These words are specific, but for the most part not collected in any recognised
manner. “Vocabulary is the area of language least subject to generalization. …
the learning of vocabulary is largely ad hoc and of indefinite duration.”
(Crystal, 2008:146). What this means is that words are plugged into the
language as they are required to fulfil a role which the language otherwise
could not fill. With the great expanse in knowledge in the Renaissance period,
it is of little surprise that the English language was subject to extreme
growth.
“the Early Modern English period
is marked by an unprecedented lexical growth. It is achieved both by extensive
borrowing from other languages and by exploiting native resources by means of
word-formation.” (Lass, 1999:332)
The
subjects of borrowing and word-formation are ones which will be discussed in
some detail further along in this investigation. The language expanded
dramatically, which makes the study of the vocabulary in this period exciting.
For the modern reader it is important to realise that while there are words
which are very familiar if not the same as the modern words, they were not
necessarily used in the same way (Crystal, 2008:98). This is where the idea of
different and difficult words emerges in the discussion.
Easy, Different and Difficult
The first
time a modern reader comes upon the language of the Elizabethan period, or
indeed any period before their own, it can be a little daunting as the language
looks very different. For most people this will happen in high school when they
are confronted with Shakespeare. In order to assist the modern reader
researchers have compiled glossaries. These glossaries focus on difficult and
different words, difficult and different are not the same, some words are unused
and others are the same words with different meanings (Crystal, 2008:146).
In order to
be clear about this, classification is required of the words in order to better
understand them and see how they are organised. There are some words which are
found in the Elizabethan texts which are familiar if not used frequently in
modern speech, these are easy words; these are often used in a special context,
or are very familiar e.g. oft, perchance, morrow (Crystal, 2008:147). These
words sometimes appear in the glossaries but not often.
It is the
difficult and different words which appear in the glossaries the most, and it
is useful to know the difference between the two. Difficult words are “words
where it is not possible to deduce from their form what they might mean”
(Crystal, 2008:152). These are often those which come from different languages
or are situational or require previous knowledge, one example of such previous
knowledge is classical study (Crystal, 2008:147). Without such previous
knowledge it can be very difficult to determine the meaning of the word and
this makes them difficult. In general, difficult words are difficult either
because it was an Elizabethan usage no longer current or because it would pose
a problem to a modern readership despite its continued currency.” (Crystal and
Crystal, 2002:viii).
Different
words are often simply different. They have a similar form as the modern word
but a different meaning was attached to them in the Elizabethan period. In some
cases, some words different due to extra syllable for metre – for the effect of
verse and keeping meaning of word (Crystal, 2008:150). This changes the
pronunciation of the word and sometimes the spelling, but the same meaning is
kept. Further, some words of the period are still used in the modern period but
their meaning has changed over time which is different to their original (Crystal
and Crystal, 2002:viii), this makes them different.
In the Elizabethan period the
language was extremely malleable and the writers of the period used the words
which they saw fit at the time. In cases these usages were different to how
they would be used in the modern period and this makes them sometimes difficult
to understand, simply because they have a different use. Some words were
converted from other forms to verbs for example and others simply assembled to
suit the situation (Crystal, 2008:148).
With the change in meaning of
words the modern researcher and reader needs to be careful about the meaning
derived. There are false friends (faux amis) where the modern meaning is different
from the period meaning, these are familiar words which actually are not, the
context of the word is important for definition (Crystal, 2008:156). The
reader, in order to gain the correct understanding of the language needs to
approach the language with some care and understanding in order to appreciate
and gain a true understanding of the language.
The meaning
of words can and often do change over time. This is a prime example of the
reason why the old words taken from the previous language were not as readily
accepted as the new words, something discussed further along. There are many
examples of this which can be pointed out one example is “politician”. The word
politician comes from politic which means to be “shrewd” over time it gradually
gained a double-meaning as “crafty” thus the word is left with a two-faced
meaning of the word, one describing political office and the other describing
the person as a “schemer” (Gooden, 2009:78). In the research of language,
especially languages of the past the reader and investigator both need to be
careful of this.
Learning the Vocabulary
In learning
the language of the Elizabethan period a person must sit back and have a look
at exactly what they are embarking upon. The language of the period and indeed
toward the end when Shakespeare was beginning to make his mark was very similar
to the modern language; the idea of perspective is important (Crystal, 2008:175).
In order to achieve this correct
perspective it is important to take into account the history of the word, even
more so for its correct meaning (Crystal, 2008:157). The historical perspective
of the language is important as the history which surrounds the language has a
huge effect upon the language. This is even more important as the language of
the period was not the same for all as it was going through changes.
“When we study Shakespeare’s
vocabulary, it is important to recognize that his period off the language – as
all other periods – is not linguistically homogeneous.” (Crystal, 2008:159)
The process
of learning the Elizabethan vocabulary and indeed the language as well is the
same as learning any foreign language (Crystal, 2008:152). The past is a
foreign place and as such needs to be treated as such including the language,
and just as with learning a foreign language it needs to be approached with
formality and regularity. Limited, spaced learning makes it difficult to build
up intuition about “normal” vocabulary of Early Modern English (Crystal, 2008:152).
Familiarity with the language and the words makes them easier to understand.
In the
investigation of the words, it is best to discover and investigate words as
they are come across, this allows for better comprehension, they are best
learnt in contextual situation (Crystal, 2008:153). What this means is that the
words should be identified and researched as they are found rather than noted
and investigated later on. The context of the word is very important as it
gives determination to the meaning of the word. The associations between word
assist with their comprehension such as antonyms, hyponymy (inclusion),
synonymy, collocation (specific association), semantic fields (Crystal, 2008:154).
The most
frequent case is a difficult word in amongst words which are reasonably
familiar; however this is not always the case. Clusters result in variability
of comprehension, resulting in patches of difficulty (Crystal, 2008:165). These
patches of difficulty can cause issues for the reader in the comprehension of
the passage. However the context of the words is important and the further
surrounding words can help with comprehension. It is important to read the entirety
of speech/passage before worrying about difficulty in part of it (Crystal, 2008:177).
The entire passage can give some direction toward the meaning of the individual
words. This is a perfect example of the use of context in order to achieve
comprehension. In some instances the same word will come up again and again.
This can be most useful as it allows for the reading of a word in a different
circumstance and thus allowing for a better understanding of the word. Words which
are repeated ensure meaning established and demonstrated to be apt usage
(Crystal, 2008:168).
The
approach to learning the vocabulary and indeed the language of a different
period needs to be approached in the same manner as a foreign language. This needs
to be methodical in process and needs to appreciate the origins of the overall
text and also the individual words. The context must be used and accounted for
as it is often the greatest tool the researcher will have in order to determine
the meaning of words.
New Words
New words
are the way in which vocabulary expands and becomes more comprehensive. There
are also cases, however in which old words are given new life and new meaning
in order to fill a gap. New words are important but also old ones were given
new use and meaning in change (Crystal, 2008:164). This allows the vocabulary
of the language to expand in new directions. In the case of the Elizabethan
vocabulary these new words combined with the old words resulted in a many and
varied vocabulary.
“An influx of foreign words and a
habit of creating new English words out of foreign elements made the early
modern vernacular lexicon a ‘hotch-potch’ of native and alien forms.”
(Mugglestone, 2006:212)
The
Elizabethan period is really located at the highest point of this influx of new
words and this was only increased by writers such as Shakespeare. The expansion
in the vocabulary was massive and while much of the study is focussed upon the
introduction of new words, old words and those developed natively cannot be
ignored.
Words in
the Elizabethan language were borrowed from other languages it is true but many
were also developed at home. Words also formed in English through affixation,
compounding and conversion, probably more words by these methods than borrowed
(Barber, 2000:182). The formation of words through these methods will be
discussed in some detail further along in the discussion. These words were
developed in order to meet the challenge of an ever-changing language.
This method
of word formation was actually the dominant way in which words were introduced
into the language. It is true that many foreign words were also borrowed an
added to the language where native words could not fill the gaps, however this
process was not totally accepted by all, based on the transparency of meaning
of the native words over the borrowed ones.
“many writers and translators in
the sixteenth century were against excessive foreign borrowing and promoted
native means of word-formation as the basis for creating new terminology.” (Nevalainen,
2006:59)
Shakespeare
is considered by many as one of the most influential writers of his time,
indeed even across the history of the English language. Shakespeare had a
talent for using the language at his time in order to express what he needed
and thus he was able to manipulate the language as he saw fit. “Like the
English language in which he revelled, Shakespeare was a literary magpie,”
(McCrum, 2010:76). He would pick and choose words from the language and use
them as he felt they would fit into what he was writing at the time. Along with
this ability he is credited with the invention of about 2,000 words, he did not
necessarily invent them but was the first to record them (Crystal, 2010:42).
The influence of Shakespeare is undeniable not only across his own period but
also across the language and into the modern period.
The words Shakespeare recorded or
invented, it does not really matter, filled holes for words which were not
present in the language at the time and some are less obvious than others
(Crystal, 2008:161). These new words were not only the work of Shakespeare but
also others as well. The fact that about 10% can be credited to him in some
form makes him the most prolific.
New meanings were attached to the
new words and then they were merely slotted into the existing semantic network
(Crystal, 2008:163). In this way the new blended in with the old giving the
vocabulary of the language more room to move and the ability to express things
it could not before. The coinages themselves reveal patterns of literacy or
dramatic interest (Crystal, 2008:171) and thus the ability to follow the
development of the language and even how the words themselves were formed as
word formation is significant in the understanding of how the vocabulary was
formed.
Word Formation
Word
formation is one of the most significant ways in which words are added to a
vocabulary. Even in our modern language the process of word formation still
introduces new words to the vocabulary, and for the Elizabethans the process
was much the same. “Early Modern English is modern as fixed base forms are used
in all word-formation processes.” (Nevalainen, 2006:60). This means that there
were fixed base forms of words and then additions were made to these words in
order to create new words. However for the Elizabethans the strict controls on
these formations were relaxed allowing for different words to be created.
“It is often assumed that an
established word blocks the derivation from the same base of another word with
the same meaning. In Early Modern English this strict economy principle was
often relaxed. Synonymous operations were applied to one and the same base
quite freely.” (Nevalainen, 2006:60)
What this
means is that words were developed side-by-side with the same base form
resulting in the different meaning, or even with a different base resulting in
the same meaning. This meant that there were words which meant the same even
though the original word was different in its base form. This process allowed
for the expansion of the vocabulary at a huge rate, and the process was not
restricted to native words.
“In principle, word-formation
does not make a basic distinction between loan words and native vocabulary in
Early Modern English. Both provide material for compounding, affixation and
conversion.” (Nevalainen, 2006:70)
Compound
words are those which are formed by the attachment of one word to another
resulting in a new word. This process is referred to as compounding. The
compound word becomes a new word in and of itself. “Compound words behave like
non-compounds in that they have a form and a meaning of their own.”
(Nevalainen, 2006:60). These compound words could be formed of words which have
different parts of speech depending on what was required by the writer at the
time. Not only were there compound adjectives using a noun and an adjective,
but also compound verbs consisting of a particle and a verb often with a
variable meaning, either concrete or abstract, depending on the result
(Nevalainen, 2006:61). This process is simply taking a word and attaching it to
another, a simpler process, used in the language and in the modern is the use
of prefixes and suffixes.
“As new loan words were integrated into Early
Modern English, prefixes and suffixes adopted from foreign sources came to be
applied to older loan words and ultimately to the native word-stock as well. It
took some time before the affixes derived from loan words established
themselves. Many of them continued to be associated with borrowed lexis.”
(Nevalainen, 2006:61)
Prefixes
and suffixes can alter the meaning of a word and allow the development of new
words, especially where multiple additions are used. These additions need not
necessarily come from the native language, as indicated above, but can be derived
from other languages resulting in words different from their originals.
The process of conversion was one
which Shakespeare used quite often it takes place where a words is changed from
one part of speech to another, e.g. noun to verb in “lump”, and adjective to
verb in “dirty” (Nevalainen, 2006:64). These conversions were a common form of
word formation in the Elizabethan period. This is a simple change in the use of
the word rather than a change in the word itself, making the process different
and in some ways easier than other word formation processes.
New Concepts
The
Renaissance period revived much of the learning which was lost to the western
world over the early medieval period. This encouraged learning and
investigation into many different fields of endeavour. One thing that had to
happen in order for this to be truly achieved was for the language to also
catch up with the latest concepts. The solution to this problem was to increase
the vocabulary.
“When new concepts need to be
named, borrowing and word-formation are not the only solutions – an existing
word can also undergo a change of meaning.” (Nevalainen, 2006:65)
Old words
were also used to explain new concepts through a change of meaning in the word.
These changes in the words allowed the vocabulary to be expanded to include new
concepts. These changes in meaning were widespread and connected not only to
scientific advancements but also other aspects of the culture. “Early Modern
English semantic changes can often be related to the social and cultural
developments of the time.” (Nevalainen, 2006:65). These changes in meaning in
the words is one of the reasons why the modern reader may have issues with
reading and understanding what an author is discussing as the word written may
not have the same meaning now as it did when it was written. In order to achieve
understanding the reader needs to appreciate the context and understand what
the author is indicating.
“Meaning generalisations also
took place with many specialist terms in Early Modern English,” e.g. “humour”
being physiological, disposition and modern understanding of amusement
dependent on context (Nevalainen, 2006:66)
Loan Words
“The focus of interest was
vocabulary. There were no words in the language to talk accurately about the
new concepts, techniques, and inventions which were coming from Europe, and so
writers began to borrow them. Most of the words which entered the language at
the time were taken from Latin, with a good number from Greek, French, Italian,
Spanish, and Portuguese.” (Crystal, 2003:60)
Loan words
were used to fill in those gaps where native development could not, or it was
felt that the native words did not adequately fill the role required. Much of
the foreign words and their introduction was also as a result of the general
feeling, especially of the upper classes, that foreign was more refined,
expressed in the requirement of travel for education. This feeling of
superiority also resulted in a dual purpose for the introduction of new words.
“two different motives for the
loans: a utilitarian one (‘necessity’), because the language needs new words to
say new things; and ‘mere brauerie’, which means ‘sheer ostentation’.” (Barber,
2000:179)
The use of
a foreign word instead of a native one was thought to demonstrate some sort of
education on the part of the user of the word, and there were those who
supported this idea. For the most part they were thinking of the increase in
the vocabulary of the language rather than for other purposes, but this did not
prevent the other from being the case. New words were designed to allow people
to express new concepts and ideas and were this required to expand the
vocabulary.
“Some writers, such as Thomas
Elyot, went out of their way to find new words, in order (as they saw it) to
‘enrich’ the language. They saw their role as enabling the new learning to be
brought within the reach of the English public” (Crystal, 2003:60)
As with the
introduction of anything new to an established system, there were those who
would resist the changes which were taking place. In some cases it was thought
that the language was already robust enough to handle the new ideas and that
the new words from other places were not required, “the influx of foreign
vocabulary attracted bitter criticism, and people leaped to the language’s
defence.” (Crystal, 2003:60). This resistance was small and felt that the
invasion of foreign words would damage the language, but as with most things
the new would take over the old.
“The increase in foreign
borrowings is the most distinctive linguistic sign of the Renaissance in English.
Purist opinion did not, in the event, stem the influx of new words – nor has it
ever,” (Crystal, 2003:60)
Latin is
one of the root-languages of English and it is of little surprise that in the
search for new words to explain concepts Latin would be a source for words to
explain these new ideas. But Latin had a more lasting effect than the simple
introduction of new words to the language. “Not only did Latin influence bring
in new words; it also caused existing words to be reshaped in accordance with their
real or supposed Latin etymology.” (Barber, 2000:180). Thus the language was in
some cases brought back to its roots and these roots used to influence the new
vocabulary and thus the language.
What is
interesting is that many words from Latin already present from earlier (Barber,
2000:178). This is a result of the monastic domination of the language
previously and their attachment to Latin through religious teachings and
through the Bible, being printed in Latin. However this adoption of Latin into
the English language was not universal or with particular emphasis on accuracy,
as some words given Latin endings others had endings omitted (Barber,
2000:179). Thus the words were manipulated to suit what was required at the
time by the author. The dominance of Latin in loan words is not to say that
others were not present, indeed they were and these can even be seen in the
present. Latin was the main source of loan-words but certainly not the only
one, words borrowed from French, Italian, Spanish and Dutch (Barber, 2000:181).
An example
of the use of two languages resulting in one word is colonel. It is from the
French coronelle adopted from Italian colonello – mid-sixteenth century spelled
with “r” but Italian spelling and pronunciation challenges it, for a time both
were used however the final word has French pronunciation and Italian spelling
(Bryson, 2009:113). Thus a single word is affected by two languages
simultaneously, one for spelling and the other for pronunciation. This is a
prime example of the manipulation of the language in order to suit what was
required. Of course this attitude toward the language also led to some problems
as well.
“The fundamental problem with
neologisms was that, even granting their utility, they remained hard to
interpret. … the use of ‘inkhorn’ terms … depended on knowledge of the very
language they were designed to translate and supersede.” (Mugglestone,
2006:222)
“Ink-horn”
terms are those which are manipulated by the author to suit what the author
required at the time from the language. Often these were so twisted that they
defeated their own purpose and actually led to more misunderstanding. The term
“ink-horn” comes from the idea of inserting something where it really does not
belong, “inkhorn terms” were words added but not needed, used in order to seem
more important, often rebelled against (Barber, 2000:180).
These new words were a problem of
the language at the time as writers struggled both to express new ideas but
also to do so in such a way that their use of the language would attract
attention to their skills. As can be expected these new terms people argued
strongly against their use, indeed as were the use of words of the old language
which were used but had lost their original meaning, ‘inkhorn’ and archaism
examples of extremity and departure from accustomed English (Mugglestone,
2006:229).
Old Words
One of the
alternatives, as already indicated above was the use of archaisms, or old
words. These words were taken from previous forms of the language in order to
fill in some holes present in the language. This was an attempt to solve the
problems of the present with information from the past and with native
language.
“By the sixteenth century, old
words, generally culled from Chaucer and other Middle English writers, were
often set forward as native alternatives to foreign borrowings and inkhorn
languages as resources for enriching the language.” (Mugglestone, 2006:228)
While these
words were native as compared to the inkhorn and foreign introduction words
that were being used and seen as an alternative. However, as has already been
expressed old words not universally supported due to being “too distant and
removed” for contemporary (Mugglestone, 2006:229). These words had been used
previously and can be seen by the modern reader reading from a previous era,
the language and meaning changes, thus the old words were seen as less useful
and too confusing to be useful by many, especially to express new concepts.
New Words and Survival
New words
were not guaranteed their survival just because they were new. The survival of
a word was dependent on its acceptance and therefore its usage. It was not
enough to invent a word, but it had to become common in usage. Of course even
in such a process there was room for abuse, in much the same way as a child
with a new toy. New terms were used to impress, baffle and for exploration of
the language, and sometimes all of the above (Gooden, 2009:75). The same can be
seen in the modern language with the latest catch phrases, often used by the
media.
The
invention of such new words was meant to fill in the gaps in the vocabulary
where another word was not present. However, in many cases some words were
created even where synonyms already present (Gooden, 2009:76). This was even
the case where a new word had been created to fill in a gap in the language and
then another is created for the same purpose and to fill the same gap in the
language.
The survival and use of words was
more instinctive than deliberate and without obvious logic (Gooden, 2009:76).
Some words came to exist and be used and thus accepted into the language and
others did not and without any real logical reason behind them. It could be
attributed to the creator of the word and who used it but details for this are
rather thin and thus the reader is left with the same absence of reason. There
are many examples of words which did not survive into the modern language,
cohabit [restrain], deruncinate [weed], eximious [excellent], illecebrous
[delicate], suppeditate [supply], demit [send away] (Crystal, 2003:61), in the
terms of the language of the time and a perfect example of the use of one of
these words, these words were deruncinated from the language.
Conclusion
The vocabulary of a language
determines what sort of things that the language can express. A limited
vocabulary limits the things which the language can express and with new
concepts being introduced to the Elizabethans, new words had to be found to
express these new concepts, thus there was a requirement for the vocabulary to
expand. The result of this expansion was that the Elizabethan period saw a huge
expansion in the vocabulary of the English language. Understanding this
expansion and the vocabulary which resulted is essential to understanding the
language.
The first part of the process of
examining the vocabulary of Elizabethan English was to examine the words and
attempt to isolate them into different types based on the difficulty in
comparison to the modern language. This resulted in three types of words, easy,
different and difficult. These are very flexible in their determination as to
which category a word fits into in some instances. The vocabulary then is
learnt like any other language and is a process which needs to be attended to
in a systematic manner in order for the reader to gain a real understanding of
the language.
In examining the vocabulary, it
is the new words which are the most significant as they describe the change in
the language in the period. In this process it is useful to examine how the
words are formed, both from the original language and also as a result of the
introduction of foreign words. Both sets of words need to be looked at as often
words from the native language would be combined with those of foreign and vice
versa.
The new words were designed to
deal with the new concepts which the language in its original form was not
ready to deal with or simply did not have the words to do so. In this process
there are three roots from which the new words came. The first was as a result
of word formation using the language as it was. The second was using words
borrowed from foreign languages and the third was using words taken from an
older form of the language in order to fill the gaps. Each of the three
processes had their successes and failures. Regardless of the objections to a
particular process of word formation, or its origin, each had their part to
play and each gave the language words in order to express new concepts which
were being introduced.
The survival of a new word was
not guaranteed and, for the most part, dependent on the acceptance and thus use
of the word. This acceptance was of a more instinctive nature rather than based
on any particular plan. For the most part it could be claimed that the
acceptance of one word over another was based on how the word fitted into the
language. These new words were like new toys, bandied about and used by authors
and orators alike in order for them to seem more educated. The interesting
thing in this process was that words were created where they were not even
needed just because they were new.
Regardless of the rhyme or reason
for the creation of the words, the result was a richer, though occasionally
more difficult language with the ability to express new concepts as they arose.
Understanding the vocabulary of a language is part of the struggle in order to
understand the language as a whole. The words found in the Elizabethan language
are sometimes the same as the modern language but also are sometimes very
different and the researcher needs to understand that both types exist and that
the language needs to be understood for what it was understand it completely.
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